Agenda packet — Gilroy City Council, November 4, 2024 (part 1 of 3)

November 4, 2024 | 6:00 PM Page 1 of 5 City Council Regular Meeting Agenda

CITY COUNCIL

REGULAR MEETING
AGENDA

CITY COUNCIL CHAMBERS, CITY HALL
7351 ROSANNA STREET, GILROY, CA
95020
MONDAY, NOVEMBER 4, 2024 | 6:00 PM
MAYOR
Marie Blankley

COUNCIL MEMBERS
Rebeca Armendariz
Dion Bracco
Tom Cline
Zach Hilton
Carol Marques
Fred Tovar
CITY COUNCIL PACKET MATERIALS ARE AVAILABLE ONLINE AT www.cityofgilroy.org AGENDA CLOSING TIME IS 5:00 P.M. THE TUESDAY PRIOR TO THE MEETING PUBLIC COMMENTS ON AGENDA ITEMS ARE TAKEN BEFORE THE CITY COUNCIL TAKES ACTION. Please keep your comments to 3 minutes. Time restrictions may vary based on the Mayor's discretion.

Send written comments on any agenda item to [email protected] or City Hall, 7351 Rosanna Street, Gilroy, CA 95020. Comments received by 1 p.m. on the meeting day will be distributed to the City Council before the meeting. Comments are also available at bit.ly/3NuS1IN.

In compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act, the City will make reasonable arrangements to ensure accessibility to this meeting. If you need special assistance to participate in this meeting, please contact the City Clerk’s Office at least 72 hours prior to the meeting at (408) 846-0204 or [email protected] to help ensure that reasonable arrangements can be made.

If you dispute any planning or land use decision from this meeting in court, you may only raise issues you or someone else presented at this meeting's public hearing or in written letters to the City Council before the hearing.

Be aware that the time to seek a judicial review of any final decision made at this meeting is defined by Section 1094.6 of the California Code of Civil Procedure.

During this meeting, a Closed Session may be called under Government Code Section 54956.9 (d)(2). This will happen if, in the City's legislative body's opinion (based on current facts, circumstances, and legal advice), there's a significant risk of a lawsuit against the City.

Additional materials submitted after agenda distribution are available on www.cityofgilroy.org as soon as possible.

KNOW YOUR RIGHTS UNDER THE GILROY OPEN GOVERNMENT ORDINANCE Government's duty is to serve the public, reaching its decisions in full view of the public.

Commissions, task forces, councils and other agencies of the City exist to conduct the people's business. This ordinance assures that deliberations are conducted before the people and that City operations are open to the people's review.

November 4, 2024 | 6:00 PM Page 2 of 5 City Council Regular Meeting Agenda

FOR MORE INFORMATION ON YOUR RIGHTS UNDER THE OPEN GOVERNMENT ORDINANCE, TO

RECEIVE A FREE COPY OF THE ORDINANCE OR TO REPORT A VIOLATION OF THE ORDINANCE, CONTACT THE OPEN GOVERNMENT COMMISSION STAFF AT (408) 846-0204.

If you need translation assistance, contact the City Clerk 72 hours before the meeting at 408-846-0204 or [email protected].

Si necesita un intérprete durante la junta y gustaría dar un comentario público, comuníquese con el Secretario de la Ciudad un mínimo de 72 horas antes de la junta al 408-846-0204 o envíe un correo electrónico a la Oficina del Secretario de la Ciudad a [email protected].

To access written translation during the meeting, please scan the QR Code or click this link:

Para acceder a la traducción durante la reunión, por favor escanee el código QR o haga clic en el enlace:
bit.ly/3FBiGA0
Choose Language and Click Attend | Seleccione su lenguaje y haga clic en asistir
Use a headset on your phone for audio or read the transcript on your device.

Use sus auriculares para escuchar el audio o leer la transcripción en el dispositivo.

The agenda for this meeting is outlined as follows:

1. OPENING

1.1. Call to Order

1.2. Pledge of Allegiance

1.3. Invocation

1.4. City Clerk's Report on Posting the Agenda

1.5. Roll Call

1.6. Orders of the Day

1.7. Employee Introductions

2. CEREMONIAL ITEMS - Proclamations and Awards

3. COUNCIL CORRESPONDENCE (Informational Only)

4. PRESENTATIONS TO THE COUNCIL

4.1. PUBLIC COMMENT BY MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC ON ITEMS NOT ON THE

AGENDA BUT WITHIN THE SUBJECT MATTER JURISDICTION OF THE

CITY COUNCIL
November 4, 2024 | 6:00 PM Page 3 of 5 City Council Regular Meeting Agenda
This part of the meeting allows public address on non-agenda topics within the Council's jurisdiction. To speak, complete a Speaker's Card from the entrances and give it to the City Clerk. Speaking time ranges from 1-3 minutes based on the Mayor's discretion. Extended discussions or actions on non-agenda items are restricted by law. For Council action, the topic may be listed on a future agenda.

Email written comments on non-agenda topics
to [email protected] or mail them to City Hall, 7351 Rosanna Street, Gilroy, CA 95020, by 1:00 p.m. on the meeting day. These comments, available at City Hall, will be shared with the Council and included in the meeting record. Late submissions will be shared as soon as possible. A 10-page limit applies to hard-copy materials, but electronic submissions are unlimited.

5. REPORTS OF COUNCIL MEMBERS
Council Member Bracco – Downtown Committee, Santa Clara County Library Joint Powers Authority, Santa Clara Valley Water Joint Water Resources Committee, SCRWA Council Member Armendariz – Downtown Committee, Santa Clara County Library Joint Powers Authority (alternate), Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency Governing Board, Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency Implementation Board, Silicon Valley Clean Energy Authority JPA Board (alternate)
Council Member Marques – ABAG, Downtown Committee, Gilroy Gardens Board of Directors, Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency Governing Board, Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency Implementation Board, SCRWA (alternate)
Council Member Hilton – CalTrain Policy Group (alternate), Silicon Valley Clean Energy Authority JPA Board, VTA Policy Advisory Committee
Council Member Cline – Gilroy Economic Development Partnership (alternate), Gilroy Gardens Board of Directors (alternate), Gilroy Sister Cities Association, Gilroy Youth Task Force, Silicon Valley Regional Interoperability Authority Board, VTA Policy Advisory Committee (alternate), Visit Gilroy California Welcome Center Board, VTA Mobility Partnership Committee
Council Member Tovar – Downtown Committee, Gilroy Youth Task Force (alternate), Santa Clara County Expressway Plan 2040 Advisory Board, Santa Clara Valley Water Commission, SCRWA, South County Youth Task Force Policy Team Mayor Blankley – ABAG (alternate), CalTrain Policy Group, Downtown Committee, Gilroy Economic Development Partnership, Gilroy Sister Cities Association (alternate), Gilroy Youth Task Force, Santa Clara Valley Water Joint Water Resources Committee, SCRWA, South County Youth Task Force Policy Team, VTA Board of Directors, VTA Mobility Partnership Committee

6. CONSENT CALENDAR
Items under the Consent Calendar are deemed routine and approved with one motion. If a Council member or a member of the public wishes for a separate discussion on an item, it must be requested for removal before the Council's approval vote. If removed, the item will be discussed in its original order.

November 4, 2024 | 6:00 PM Page 4 of 5 City Council Regular Meeting Agenda

6.1. Approval of the Action Minutes of the October 21, 2024 City Council Regular Meeting

6.2. Adoption of a Resolution of the City of Gilroy to approve the Santa Clara County Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) and the Gilroy Annex

6.3. Approval of a second Amendment to the Agreement with Circlepoint, Inc. for the Gilroy Data Center Project Environmental Impact Report in the amount of $36,757.25 for a total project cost of $244,009.30.

6.4. Claim of Jesus Diaz Chavez (The City Administrator recommends a "yes" vote under the Consent Calendar shall constitute denial of the claim)

6.5. Claim of Roberto Patricio Justor (The City Administrator recommends a "yes" vote under the Consent Calendar shall constitute denial of the claim)

7. BIDS AND PROPOSALS

8. PUBLIC HEARINGS

9. UNFINISHED BUSINESS

9.1. Approval of a Notice of Acceptance of Completion for the FY23 Citywide Pavement Rehabilitation Project No. 23-PW-278 and Approval of a Final Contract with Teichert Construction in the Amount of $5,977,011.86

1. Staff Report: Daniel Padilla, City Engineer

2. Public Comment

3. Possible Action:
a) Approve a Notice of Acceptance of Completion for the FY23 Citywide Pavement Rehabilitation Project No. 23-PW-278.
b) Approve a final contract in the amount of $5,977,011.86 with Teichert Construction for the FY23 Citywide Pavement Rehabilitation Project No. 23- PW-278.

9.2. Zoning Ordinance Update Progress Report

1. Staff Report: Sharon Goei, Community Development Director

2. Public Comment

3. Possible Action:

Receive the staff report and provide feedback.

10. INTRODUCTION OF NEW BUSINESS

11. FUTURE COUNCIL INITIATED AGENDA ITEMS

12. CITY ADMINISTRATOR'S REPORTS

12.1. VTA Grant Award

12.2. Santa Teresa Fire Station Update
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13. CITY ATTORNEY'S REPORTS

14. CLOSED SESSION

15. ADJOURN TO OPEN SESSION
Report of any action taken in Closed Session and vote or abstention of each Council Member if required by Government Code Section 54957.1 and GCC Section 17A.13(b); Public Report of the vote to continue in closed session if required under GCC Section 17A.11(5).

16. ADJOURNMENT

FUTURE MEETING DATES
November 2024
18 Regular Meeting - 6:00 p.m
December 2024
9 Regular Meeting - 6:00 p.m
Meetings are live streamed on the City of Gilroy’s website at gilroy.city/meetings and on YouTube at https://bit.ly/45jor03.

Access the 2024 City Council Meeting Calendar at https://bit.ly/3LLzY1n.

City Council Regular Meeting
Agenda
October 21, 2024 | 6:00 PM Page 1 of 5

CITY COUNCIL ACTION MINUTES
MONDAY, OCTOBER 21, 2024 | 6:00 PM

1. OPENING

1.1. Call to Order

1.2. Pledge of Allegiance
Mayor Blankley led the Pledge of Allegiance.

1.3. Invocation
Pastor Malcolm McPhail led the invocation.

1.4. City Clerk's Report on Posting the Agenda Interim City Clerk, Beth Minor advised the revised agenda was posted on Friday, October 18, 2024 at 3:25 P.M.

1.5. Roll Call
Attendance Attendee Name
Dion Bracco, Council Member
Rebeca Armendariz, Council Member
Carol Marques, Council Member
Zach Hilton, Council Member
Tom Cline, Council Member
Fred Tovar, Council Member
Marie Blankley, Mayor
Absent NONE

1.6. Orders of the Day
None

1.7. Employee Introductions
None

2. CEREMONIAL ITEMS - Proclamations and Awards

2.1. Proclaiming October 24, 2024 as Arbor Day
Parks and Recreation Commission Chair, Pat Bentson, accepted the Proclamation.

3. COUNCIL CORRESPONDENCE (Informational Only)

3.1. Memo Regarding the Library Bond Project Schedule.

3.2. Board and Commission Terms Ending December 31, 2025 - Maddy Act 2025.

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4. PRESENTATIONS TO THE COUNCIL

4.1. PUBLIC COMMENT BY MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC ON ITEMS NOT

ON THE AGENDA BUT WITHIN THE SUBJECT MATTER

JURISDICTION OF THE CITY COUNCIL
Mayor Blankley opened Public Comment.

Elaine Gooding thanked Council Members Marques and Bracco for visiting the Garlic Farm RV Park to see the situation there. She asked the Council for further assistance.

Mike Nagel spoke regarding his property on Monterey Road being landlocked and hoped that the project at 315 Las Animas would include continued access to his property.

Eli Aizerman spoke regarding the 315 Las Animas project litigation against the City.

James Pearson advised the need to reconstitute the Library Bond Oversight Committee and to get new members on the board.

Dennis Jamison requested an apology from the Council to the people who spoke regarding the fair and honest 2024 election resolution discussion.

Eric Mathews spoke regarding the fair and honest 2024 election resolution.

Alicia spoke regarding the fair and honest 2024 election resolution and how she felt about the council discussion.

Judy Hess spoke about her time working at the Registrar of Voters Office and how they handled election materials. She also invited everyone to the Steve Ashford Memorial pancake breakfast at the Miller Red Barn on Saturday.

There being no further speakers, Mayor Blankley closed Public Comment.

4.2. High Speed Rail Update Presented by the California High Speed Rail Authority (Estimated Time: One Hour)
Mayor Blankley opened Public Comment.

There being no speakers, Mayor Blankley closed Public Comment.

5. REPORTS OF COUNCIL MEMBERS
Council Member Bracco
No report.

Council Member Armendariz
Noted her attendance at the recent California League of Cities Conference in

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Long Beach.

Council Member Marques
Advised the Downtown Committee has several upcoming recommendations for the Council to review and noted they will not be meeting until after the first of the new year.

Council Member Hilton
Silicon Valley Clean Energy Authority JPA Board approved the allocation of $6 million to expand decarbonization programs and initiatives.

Council Member Cline
No report.

Council Member Tovar
Advised he also attended the California League of Cities conference and attended workshops regarding the unhoused. The Gilroy Gardens negotiating Committee met with members of the Gilroy Gardens Board and discussed important topics and outlined goals as a City Council.

Mayor Blankley
Noted her attendance at the California League of Cities Conference and also spoke about the Pancake Breakfast to be held at the Miller Red Barn on Saturday.

6. CONSENT CALENDAR

6.1. Approval of the Action Minutes of the October 7, 2024 City Council Regular Meeting.

6.2. Adoption of a Resolution of the City Council of the City of Gilroy Approving the 2024 City of Gilroy Emergency Operations Plan (EOP).

Enactment No.: Resolution No. 2024-49

6.3. Adoption of a Joint Resolution Detailing the Representative Governance for South Santa Clara County Cities on Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority's Board of Directors.

Enactment No.: Resolution No. 2024-50

6.4. *Adopt a Resolution Authorizing a Grant Application to Santa Clara County Parks for the Miller Red Barn Fire Suppression Sprinklers Project.

Enactment No.: Resolution No. 2024-51
Mayor Blankley opened Public Comment.

There being no speakers, Mayor Blankley closed Public Comment.

MOTION: To approve Agenda Items 6.1-6.4
RESULTS: PASS: 7-0 ROLL CALL VOTE
MOVER: Rebeca Armendariz, Council Member
SECONDER: Fred Tovar, Council Member

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AYES: BRACCO, ARMENDARIZ, MARQUES,

HILTON, CLINE, TOVAR, BLANKLEY
NOES:

ABSENT:

ABSTAIN:

7. BIDS AND PROPOSALS

8. PUBLIC HEARINGS

9. UNFINISHED BUSINESS

10. INTRODUCTION OF NEW BUSINESS

10.1. Report on Awarded Grants and Adoption of a Resolution Amending the Adopted Budget to Reflect the Grant Awards.

Mayor Blankley opened Public Comment.

There being no speakers, Mayor Blankley closed Public Comment.

MOTION: To adopt the resolution amending the adopted budget to reflect the grant awards.

RESULTS: PASS: 7-0 ROLL CALL VOTE
MOVER: Rebeca Armendariz, Council Member
SECONDER: Carol Marques, Council Member
AYES: BRACCO, ARMENDARIZ, MARQUES,

HILTON, CLINE, TOVAR, BLANKLEY
NOES:

ABSENT:

ABSTAIN:

Enactment No.: Resolution No. 2024-52

11. FUTURE COUNCIL INITIATED AGENDA ITEMS

12. CITY ADMINISTRATOR'S REPORTS

12.1. Santa Teresa Fire Station Update
City Administrator, Jimmy Forbis noted his attendance at the California League of Cities Conference having attended most of the sessions on the unhoused. He advised the Santa Teresa Fire Station project is moving forward and once Council accepts the land, we are on our way. Staff will reengage the architect and the community to look into design modifications.

13. CITY ATTORNEY'S REPORTS

14. CLOSED SESSION

15. ADJOURN TO OPEN SESSION

16. ADJOURNMENT
The meeting was adjourned at 7:14 P.M.

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I HEREBY CERTIFY that the foregoing minutes were duly and regularly adopted at a regular meeting of the City Council of the City of Gilroy. /s/Beth Minor
Interim City Clerk

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Page 1 of 4 ends

City of Gilroy

STAFF REPORT
Agenda Item Title: Adoption of a Resolution of the City of Gilroy to approve the Santa Clara County Community Wildfire
Protection Plan (CWPP) and the Gilroy Annex
Meeting Date: November 4, 2024
From: Jimmy Forbis, City Administrator
Department: Administration
Submitted By: Jimmy Forbis, City Administrator
Prepared By: Andrew Young, Emergency Services and Volunteer Coordinator
STRATEGIC PLAN GOALS Not Applicable

RECOMMENDATION
Adoption of a Resolution of the City of Gilroy to approve the Santa Clara County Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) and the Gilroy Annex.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The 2023 update to the CWPP is a significant effort to strengthen wildfire preparedness and resilience throughout the county. The supporting Gilroy Annex is tailored to the unique needs of the Gilroy Planning Area. Coordinated by the Santa Clara County FireSafe Council, with support from CAL FIRE, the County of Santa Clara Office of Emergency Management, and other key stakeholders, this update builds on the previous 2016 CWPP.

One of the main focuses of the 2023 update is on enhanced mitigation strategies, which aim to reduce wildfire risk, particularly in wildland-urban interface (WUI) areas. These strategies include improved guidelines for defensible space, ignition-resistant construction standards, and hazardous fuels reduction projects. Another key aspect of the update is its emphasis on community collaboration, incorporating input from various stakeholders and fostering partnerships with local, state, and federal agencies to ensure

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Adoption of a Resolution of the City of Gilroy to approve the Santa Clara County Community Wildfire Plan (CWPP) and the Gilroy Annex
City of Gilroy City Council Page 2 of 4 November 4, 2024 the plan meets the community's needs.

The plan also identifies priority areas where mitigation efforts are most critical to protecting lives, property, and infrastructure, ensuring that resources are used effectively. Public awareness and education are also key components, with initiatives like community events and workshops designed to equip residents with the knowledge and tools to mitigate wildfire risks. Overall, the 2023 CWPP update represents a crucial step in enhancing the county’s wildfire resilience, safeguarding communities, and ensuring a more effective response to future wildfire threats.

BACKGROUND
The Santa Clara County CWPP was initially developed in 2016 to address the growing threat of wildfires in the region. The plan aimed to enhance wildfire preparedness, reduce risks, and protect lives and property through a collaborative approach involving local communities, government agencies, and other stakeholders. Given the increasing frequency and intensity of wildfires in California, an update to the CWPP was deemed necessary to incorporate new data, strategies, and technologies.

In 2023, the Santa Clara County FireSafe Council, in partnership with CAL FIRE, the County of Santa Clara Office of Emergency Management, and other key stakeholders, undertook a comprehensive update of the CWPP. This update reflects the latest understanding of wildfire behavior, risk assessment, and mitigation techniques, ensuring that the county remains proactive in its wildfire preparedness efforts.

The CWPP is not a regulatory document, but it plays a crucial role in wildfire preparedness and mitigation. The Santa Clara County CWPP Base Plan is an overarching countywide plan, while the Gilroy Annex is tailored to the specific needs and conditions of the community it serves, making the strategies and actions more effective. By developing and implementing a CWPP, communities can significantly enhance their resilience to wildfires, even though the plan itself is not legally binding.

ANALYSIS
The 2023 CWPP update serves as a forward-thinking planning tool aimed at reducing the growing wildfire risk in Santa Clara County, particularly in the Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) areas, including parts of Gilroy. Its focus on mitigation strategies, community collaboration, and targeted resource allocation demonstrates a proactive stance on tackling wildfire threats. By adopting the CWPP base plan and the Gilroy Annex, the City will synchronize local efforts, fostering a safer and more resilient community, well-prepared for future wildfire challenges by:

1. Mitigating Wildfire Risks: The CWPP provides a detailed risk assessment and identifies priority areas where mitigation efforts can be implemented. It recommends fuel reduction, defensible space creation, and public education campaigns to reduce the likelihood and severity of wildfire incidents.

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Adoption of a Resolution of the City of Gilroy to approve the Santa Clara County Community Wildfire Plan (CWPP) and the Gilroy Annex
City of Gilroy City Council Page 3 of 4 November 4, 2024

2. Enhancing Community Preparedness: Adoption of the CWPP will support Gilroy's participation in county-wide public education programs, community preparedness initiatives, and training opportunities to better prepare residents and businesses for wildfire events.

3. Accessing Funding Opportunities: Approval of the CWPP is a prerequisite for accessing federal and state grant funding, including those from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), for wildfire mitigation projects. This could provide Gilroy with financial support to implement local fire protection measures.

4. Fostering Interagency Collaboration: The CWPP emphasizes coordination among local, county, state, and federal agencies, which is critical for ensuring an effective wildfire response. Adoption of the plan will strengthen partnerships between Gilroy and other fire management agencies.

5. Supporting Long-Term Resilience: The Gilroy Annex outlines long-term strategies to improve community resilience against wildfires, such as land-use planning, infrastructure hardening, and water resource management. These strategies will help safeguard lives, property, and natural resources in the face of growing wildfire risks.

ALTERNATIVES
Staff recommends approving the resolution to adopt the CWPP and Gilroy Planning Area Annex update, as it will enhance wildfire preparedness and align the city with broader county and state wildfire management efforts. Conversely, not adopting the plan may leave the city vulnerable to wildfire risks and result in missed opportunities for state and federal funding for wildfire mitigation projects. Alternatively, the Council could request specific modifications to the plan before approval, though this may delay implementation and the associated benefits.

FISCAL IMPACT/FUNDING SOURCE
The base document update was grant funded and only staff time was incurred for collaboration and annex development. There are no direct fiscal impacts from adopting the Santa Clara County CWPP and supporting Gilroy Annex. However, it positions the City to apply for state and federal grants aimed at wildfire mitigation, which could provide significant financial resources for implementing the plan’s strategies.

Additionally, proactive wildfire mitigation can reduce the long-term costs associated with wildfire response and recovery.

PUBLIC OUTREACH
The FireSafe Council, in partnership with Annex stakeholders, led the public outreach efforts for the development of the CWPP. Several outreach and engagement events were organized to educate the community and gather input from residents across the County. In Morgan Hill, the local event was promoted through weekly emails and social

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Adoption of a Resolution of the City of Gilroy to approve the Santa Clara County Community Wildfire Plan (CWPP) and the Gilroy Annex
City of Gilroy City Council Page 4 of 4 November 4, 2024 media campaigns. A draft plan, along with a story map, was shared via media outlets to encourage community review and feedback. The supporting annex was developed based on the information and mitigation priorities outlined in the base document and customized for the Gilroy Planning Area. The finalized draft of the Gilroy Annex, along with this staff report, was included in the publicly posted agenda and meeting packet, providing the public an opportunity to review and offer input.

NEXT STEPS
Staff will continue to evaluate the feasibility of mitigation activities outlined in this document and pursue grant funding to implement projects in collaboration with partner agencies and other community stakeholders and monitor progress.

Attachments:

1. Santa Clara County Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) (Base document)

2. Gilroy Annex to the CWPP (Pending)

3. Resolution to Adopt the CWPP

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COMMUNITY

WILDFIRE

PROTECTION
PLAN

SANTA CLARA COUNTY
AUGUST 2023
Working together to build
fire adapted communities,
resilient to wildfire
Funding for the Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) is a collaboration between these public and private entities, and is a part of California Climate Investments, a statewide initiative that puts billions of Cap-and-Trade dollars to work reducing greenhouse gas emissions, strengthening the economy, and improving public health and the environment. particularly in disadvantaged communities. The Cap-and-Trade program also creates a financial incentive for industries to invest in clean technologies and develop innovative ways to reduce pollution. California Climate Investments projects include affordable housing, renewable energy, public transportation, zero-emission vehicles, environmental restoration, more sustainable agriculture, recycling, and much more. At least 35 percent of these investments are located within and benefiting residents of disadvantaged communities, low-income communities, and low-income households across California.

For more information, visit the California Climate Investments website at: www.caclimateinvestments.ca.gov.

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We would like to formally thank the Santa Clara County FireSafe Council, CWPP Management Team, Advisory Team, and all stakeholders for contributing their time and expertise throughout the planning process. Your participation has contributed to creating resilient landscapes, implementing public education, reducing structural ignitability, and ensuring safe and effective wildfire response. We would also like to acknowledge the work of the Santa Cruz Mountain Stewardship Network in development of the Risk-Hazard Assessment, and especially the contributions of Tukman Geospatial, Esther MandenoDigital Mapping Solutions, and Carol Rice-Wildland Resource Management for their contributions to this planning effort.

For additional information, questions, or concerns regarding this project, please contact Project Manager Victoria Amato at [email protected].

For all your planning and implementation needs, please visit www.swca.com.

Funding for the Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) is a collaboration between these public and private entities, and is a part of California Climate Investments, a statewide initiative that puts billions of Cap-and-Trade dollars to work reducing greenhouse gas emissions, strengthening the economy, and improving public health and the environment. particularly in disadvantaged communities. The Cap-andTrade program also creates a financial incentive for industries to invest in clean technologies and develop innovative ways to reduce pollution. California Climate Investments projects include affordable housing, renewable energy, public transportation, zero-emission vehicles, environmental restoration, more sustainable agriculture, recycling, and much more. At least 35 percent of these investments are located within and benefiting residents of disadvantaged communities, low-income communities, and low-income households across California. For more information, visit the California Climate Investments website at:
www.caclimateinvestments.ca.gov.

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DISCLAIMER
The purpose of this assessment and report is to assess the wildfire risk and hazard existing within the planning area and surrounding environment and to provide a framework for reducing and managing vegetative fuel loads on privately owned open spaces/undeveloped land and adjacent roads to minimize wildfire hazard while avoiding or minimizing negative environmental effects. However, the information provided in this report does not prevent wildfires; instead, it is intended to manage the wildfire risk.

On that account, SWCA Environmental Consultants accepts no responsibility and disclaims all liability for any loss or damages that may result from fires and associated effects occurring within and around the planning area.

Observations in the report are based on best available data, satellite imagery, on-the-ground evaluations, previous data from the 2016 CWPP, computer modeling at the community level, and local knowledge.

Treatments recommended in this report are aimed at reducing the threat of and damages from catastrophic wildfire.  They are based on California state legislation and best practices and methods researched and developed by the U.S Department of Agriculture.  Recommendations were chosen based on vegetation type, topography, current weather trends, current and predicted fire behavior, implementation feasibility, and cost-benefit ratio. There may, however, be alternative site-specific solutions available to protect values at risk (VARs) that may better fit the goals and management of the development.

During the performance of this project work, SWCA and our subconsultants did not unlawfully discriminate, harass, or allow harassment, against any stakeholder on the basis of sex, gender, gender expression, sexual orientation, race, color, religious creed, marital status, ancestry, national origin, medical condition, age, or disability (mental and physical).

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The entities listed below participated in the development of and/or reviewed and are in support of the Santa Clara County Community Wildfire Protection Plan:

Signature
Name (printed)
Date
Agency/Position (printed)
Signature
Name (printed)
Date
Agency/Position (printed)
Signature
Name (printed)
Date
Agency/Position (printed)
Signature
Name (printed)
Date
Agency/Position (printed)

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Signature
Name (printed)
Date
Agency/Position (printed)
Signature
Name (printed)
Date
Agency/Position (printed)
Signature
Name (printed)
Date
Agency/Position (printed)
Signature
Name (printed)
Date
Agency/Position (printed)

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Page | i

CONTENTS
Executive Summary..................................................................................................................................vii What Is the Purpose of this Community Wildfire Protection Plan? .......................................................vii What Are the Key Issues Addressed?..................................................................................................viii How Is the Plan Organized?.................................................................................................................viii What Is the Goal of a CWPP?............................................................................................................... ix How Was the Santa Clara County CWPP Update Developed?............................................................. x What Happened Since 2016?................................................................................................................ xi Why Create a Story Map for the Project?.............................................................................................. xi Where Is the Planning Area?................................................................................................................. xi Who Participated in Developing the Plan?............................................................................................xii What Was the Public Involvement?...................................................................................................... xv What Is the Current Wildfire Situation? ................................................................................................ xv What Is the Risk-Hazard Assessment?................................................................................................ xv How Is my Community Rated?.............................................................................................................xvi What Are the Strategies to Address Wildfire Hazards?.......................................................................xvii What Does Post-Fire Response and Recovery Involve? .....................................................................xix How Will the Plan be Implemented?.....................................................................................................xix Who Will Lead the Implementation of this CWPP? .............................................................................. xx When Does the CWPP Need to be Updated?...................................................................................... xx Management Team .............................................................................................................................. xx Advisory Team......................................................................................................................................xxi Chapter 1 – Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 Planning Oversight ................................................................................................................................. 2 CWPP Management Team and Advisory Team.............................................................................. 2 Goal of a Community Wildfire Protection Plan ....................................................................................... 2 Alignment with the National Cohesive Strategy ..................................................................................... 4 Alignment with Plans and Agreements................................................................................................... 6

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2023 Santa Clara County Community Wildfire Protection Plan Page | ii
Planning and Regulatory Background.................................................................................................... 6 Planning Area ......................................................................................................................................... 6 Land Ownership...................................................................................................................................... 7 Public Involvement ...............................................................................................................................11 Chapter 2 – Fire Environment..................................................................................................................13 Wildland Urban Interface......................................................................................................................13 Fire Hazard Severity Zones ...........................................................................................................15 WUI Land Use................................................................................................................................17 Social Vulnerability ...............................................................................................................................18 Unhoused Populations...................................................................................................................19 Vegetation and Land Cover..................................................................................................................19 Topography and Fuels..........................................................................................................................22 Ember Ignition Hazards ........................................................................................................................25 Fire Regimes ........................................................................................................................................26 Grassland.......................................................................................................................................27 Chaparral and Northern Coastal scrub ..........................................................................................28 Oak Woodland ...............................................................................................................................28 Sudden Oak Death.........................................................................................................................29 Riparian Forest and Scrub .............................................................................................................29 Conifer Woodland ..........................................................................................................................30 Irrigated Agriculture........................................................................................................................30 Invasive non-native plant communities..........................................................................................31 Climate and Weather Patterns .............................................................................................................32 Fire History ...........................................................................................................................................35 Past Fire Management Policies and Land Management Actions ..................................................35 Recent Fire Occurrence.................................................................................................................36 Extreme Fire Behavior Patterns ...........................................................................................................40 Fire Response Capabilities...................................................................................................................41 Planning Decision and Support......................................................................................................42 Fire Resources...............................................................................................................................42 Chapter 3 – Risk-Hazard Assessment ....................................................................................................43 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................43 Field-Based Community Hazard Assessments ....................................................................................44 Firewise Communities ..........................................................................................................................44 Evacuation Capabilities ........................................................................................................................45 Risk-Hazard Assessment .....................................................................................................................60 Background ....................................................................................................................................60 Technical Approach .......................................................................................................................62 Model Inputs...................................................................................................................................63 Model Outputs................................................................................................................................64 Areas of Concern ...........................................................................................................................67 Collaboration..................................................................................................................................71 Model Applications ...............................................................................................................................71 Values at Risk.......................................................................................................................................72

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Natural Values at Risk....................................................................................................................77 Socioeconomic Values at Risk.......................................................................................................79 Cultural Values at Risk...................................................................................................................81 Chapter 4 – Mitigation Strategies ............................................................................................................85 Goal 1: Restore and Maintain Landscapes ..........................................................................................86 Recommendations for Hazardous Fuel Reduction........................................................................88 Goal 2: Fire-Adapted Communities ....................................................................................................101 Recommendations for Public Education and Outreach...............................................................101 Recommendations for Reducing Structural Ignitability ................................................................102 Goal 3: Wildfire Response..................................................................................................................107 Recommendations for Improving Fire Response Capabilities.....................................................107 Chapter 5 – Monitoring and Evaluation ................................................................................................113 Fuels Treatment Monitoring................................................................................................................115 Implementation ...................................................................................................................................116 Project Tracker.............................................................................................................................116 CWPP Evaluation ...............................................................................................................................117 Timeline for Updating the CWPP........................................................................................................119 References...............................................................................................................................................134

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Planning and Policy Background
Appendix B: Community Background and Resources
Appendix C: Community Risk-Hazard Assessments for WUI Communities Appendix D: Tukman Geospatial Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, and San Mateo County Wildfire Risk to Structures and Classified Wildfire Hazard Maps for Fire Prevention Planning Appendix E: Project Recommendations
Appendix F: Fuel Treatment Types and Methods
Appendix G: Property Owner Resources
Appendix H: Post-Fire Recovery and Restoration
Appendix I: Project Outreach
Appendix J: Additional Mapping
Appendix K: Forms
Appendix L: Funding Sources
Appendix M: List of Preparers

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FIGURES
Figure 1.1. CWPP incorporating the three primary goals of the Cohesive Strategy and post-fire recovery and serving as holistic plan for fire prevention and resilience. ......................................... 5 Figure 1.2. Santa Clara County general location map.................................................................................. 8 Figure 1.3. Santa Clara County community boundaries map, developed through Core Team collaboration..................................................................................................................................... 9 Figure 1.4. Santa Clara County land ownership map. ................................................................................10 Figure 2.1. WUI with accompanying interface zones of Santa Clara County.............................................14 Figure 2.2. Example of the WUI in the Santa Clara County. ......................................................................16 Figure 2.3. An unhoused encampment in San Jose...................................................................................17 Figure 2.4. Vegetation types across Santa Clara County...........................................................................21 Figure 2.5. Fuel model classes across Santa Clara County.......................................................................24 Figure 2.6. 30-year monthly normals for temperature and precipitation for West Almaden, 1981– 2010 (Source: PRISM 2023)..........................................................................................................33 Figure 2.7. 30-year monthly normals for temperature and precipitation for Gilroy, 1981–2010 (Source: PRISM 2023)...................................................................................................................34 Figure 2.8. 30-year monthly normals for temperature and precipitation for North Coyote Reservoir, 1981–2010 (Source: PRISM 2023)................................................................................................34 Figure 2.9. Recent wildfire history in Santa Clara County. .........................................................................37 Figure 2.10. Decadal wildfire frequency for Santa Clara County from 1950 through 2022, based on available data.................................................................................................................................38 Figure 2.11. Decadal fire size statistics for Santa Clara County based on fire history data from 1950 through 2022. ................................................................................................................................. 38 Figure 2.12. Decadal acres burned per decade for Santa Clara County based on fire history data from 1978 through 2022.................................................................................................................39 Figure 2.13. Number of recorded fires per month in Santa Clara County from 1978 through 2022...........39 Figure 2.14. Cause of wildfire ignitions in Santa Clara County from 2014 through 2022...........................40 Figure 2.15. Map of fire agency service areas in Santa Clara County. ......................................................41 Figure 3.1. CAL FIRE FHSZs across Santa Clara County. ........................................................................61 Figure 3.2. Schematic of data inputs used to derive both the WRS and CWH layers (Tukman 2022). .............................................................................................................................................62 Figure 3.3. Model inputs for the Tukman model. ........................................................................................63 Figure 3.4. Model outputs for the Tukman model. ......................................................................................64 Figure 3.5. Classified wildfire hazard within Santa Clara County. ..............................................................65 Figure 3.6. Wildfire risk to structures within Santa Clara County................................................................66 Figure 3.7. Screenshot of online version of the WRS layer (accessed January 2023). .............................70 Figure 3.8. Intersect of critical habitat with CWH........................................................................................73 Figure 3.9. Intersect of cultural VARs with CWH. .......................................................................................74 Figure 3.10. Intersect of critical infrastructure with CWH............................................................................75 Figure 3.11. Intersect of open space lands with CWH................................................................................76 Figure 3.12. Example of a natural VAR, a scenic viewshed.......................................................................77 Figure 3.13. Map of natural VARs across Santa Clara County. ................................................................. 78 Figure 3.14. Socioeconomic VARs across Santa Clara County.................................................................80 Figure 3.15. Example of a cultural VAR, the Lick Observatory...................................................................81 Figure 3.16. Example of a cultural VAR, view from the historic fire tower on Mount Hamilton. .................82

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Figure 3.17. Cultural VARs across Santa Clara County.............................................................................83 Figure 4.1. Past fuel treatments and types across Santa Clara County.....................................................87 Figure 4.2. Planning Team–delineated areas of concern...........................................................................90 Figure 4.3. CEQA process. .........................................................................................................................98 Figure 4.4. Fuel reduction project in Santa Clara County...........................................................................99 Figure 4.5. Fuel reduction project in Santa Clara County.........................................................................100 TABLES
Table 2.1. Estimated Socially Vulnerable Populations at Risk from Wildfire in Santa Clara County..........18 Table 2.2. Scott and Burgan 2005 Fuel Model Classes within Santa Clara County ..................................23 Table 2.3. Mean Annual Temperature and Precipitation by Station in Santa Clara County.......................33 Table 3.1. Communities at Risk Ratings with Community Hazard Assessment Summary ........................46 Table 3.2. Polygons Exhibiting High Hazard and High Structure Classification.........................................68 Table 4.1. Recommendations to Create Resilient Landscapes (Fuel Treatments)....................................91 Table 4.2. Recommendations for Creating Fire-Adapted Communities (Public Education and Reducing Structural Ignitability) ...................................................................................................103 Table 4.3. Recommendations for Safe and Effective Wildfire Response .................................................109 Table 5.1. Recommended Monitoring Strategies .....................................................................................114

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THIS COMMUNITY
WILDFIRE PROTECTION PLAN?
Nationally, the 2000 fire season triggered great interest by the federal government in the wildfire issue.

In 2003 the U.S. Congress recognized widespread declining forest health and increased wildfire risk nationwide by passing the Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003 (HFRA), and President Bush signed the act into law (Public Law 108–148, 2003). The HFRA was revised in 2009 to address changes to funding and provide a renewed focus on wildfire mitigation (H.R. 4233 - Healthy Forest Restoration Amendments Act of 2009). The HFRA expedites the development and implementation of hazardous fuels reduction projects on federal land and emphasizes the need for federal agencies to work collaboratively with communities. A key component of the HFRA is the development of community wildfire protection plans (CWPPs), which facilitate the collaboration between federal agencies and communities in order to develop hazardous fuels reduction projects and place priority on treatment areas identified by communities in a CWPP. A CWPP also allows communities to establish their own definition of the WUI.

In addition, communities with an established CWPP are given priority for funding of hazardous fuels reduction projects carried out in accordance with the HFRA.

The purpose of the 2023 Santa Clara County Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) update is to:

1. Provide a countywide scale of wildfire risk and protection needs,

2. Bring together all responsible wildfire management and suppression entities in the planning area to address the identified needs, and

3. Provide a framework for future planning and implementation of necessary mitigation measures.

This CWPP aims to assist in protecting human life and reducing property loss due to wildfire throughout the county. This 2023 plan was compiled from reports, documents, data, and Planning Team and public input. The plan was developed in response to the HFRA.

The CWPP meets the requirements of the HFRA by addressing the following:

1. Having been developed collaboratively by multiple agencies at the state and local levels in consultation with federal agencies and other interested parties.

2. Prioritizing and identifying fuel reduction treatments and recommending the types and methods of treatments to protect at-risk communities and pertinent infrastructure.

3. Suggesting multi-party mitigation, monitoring, and outreach.

4. Recommending measures and action items that residents and communities can take to reduce the ignitability of structures.

5. Soliciting input from the public on the draft CWPP.

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WHAT ARE THE KEY ISSUES ADDRESSED?
Issues addressed in this CWPP include:
• Fuel treatment recommendations for land management agencies and property owners to mitigate hazard and risk
• Prioritizing hazardous fuels reduction in the wildland urban interface (WUI) • Raising awareness about the natural role that fire plays in the ecosystem and maintaining resilient landscapes
• Public education and outreach to property owners to enable individuals to reduce the risk of fire to their properties, particularly regarding the time required for fire response to remote communities • Constant and consistent messaging for residents and visitors concerning wildfire risks and mitigation strategies
• Increasing public access to information through the use of online materials, including the story map created for this CWPP
• Investing and supporting fire response at all levels, including resources for local fire departments, to increase capacity to serve the community
• Increasing public understanding of the fire response process • Continuing to address wildfire issues at the landscape level, across multiple jurisdictions • Managing fire to protect values and accomplish resource management goals, including protection and enhancement of wildlife habitat, watershed health, water supply and quality, and forest health • Recent climate patterns and associated changes to the wildland fire environment • Disease and insect outbreaks associated with tree mortality HOW IS THE PLAN ORGANIZED?
The CWPP provides a Risk-Hazard Assessment, action items, project recommendations, and background information about the county’s wildland fire environment as well as land management plans and agencies. In order to keep the main document focused on the assessment and wildfire recommendations, most of the background information and baseline data from the 2016 CWPP planning effort is housed in several appendices.

Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Fire Environment
Chapter 3: Risk-Hazard Assessment
Chapter 4: Mitigation Strategies
Chapter 5: Monitoring and Evaluation
Appendix A: Planning and Policy Background
Appendix B: Community Background and Resources

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Appendix C: Community Risk-Hazard Assessments for WUI Communities Appendix D: Tukman Geospatial Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, and San Mateo County Wildfire Risk to Structures and Classified Wildfire Hazard Maps for Fire Prevention Planning Appendix E: Project Recommendations
Appendix F: Fuel Treatment Types and Methods
Appendix G: Property Owner Resources
Appendix H: Post-Fire Recovery and Restoration
Appendix I: Project Outreach
Appendix J: Additional Mapping
Appendix K: Forms
Appendix L: Funding Sources
Appendix M: List of Preparers
WHAT IS THE GOAL OF A CWPP?
The goal of a CWPP is to enable local communities to improve their wildfire-mitigation capacity, while working with government agencies to identify high fire risk areas and prioritize areas for mitigation, fire suppression, and emergency preparedness. Another goal of the CWPP is to enhance public awareness by helping residents better understand the natural- and human-caused risks of wildland fires that threaten lives, safety, and the local economy. The minimum requirements for a CWPP, as stated in the HFRA, are (Society of American Foresters [SAF] 2004):
• Collaboration: Local and state government representatives, in consultation with federal agencies or other interested groups, must collaboratively develop a CWPP. • Prioritized Fuel Reduction: A CWPP must identify and prioritize areas for hazardous fuels reduction and treatments and recommend the types and methods of treatment that will protect one or more communities at risk (CARs) and their essential infrastructures. • Treatments of Structural Ignitability: A CWPP must recommend measures that property owners and communities can take to reduce the ignitability of structures throughout the area addressed by the plan.

The Management Team and Advisory Team (the Planning Team) developed the following specific goals for the plan:
• Robust Analysis
• Collaboration
• Engagement
• Adoption
• Implementation

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These goals will help address specific concerns and priorities identified by the Planning Team. Concerns and priorities outlined by the Planning Team include:
• Ingress/Egress: It is important that roadside vegetation is managed and evacuation routes are planned.
• Fuel Loading
• Defensible Space
• Human Ignitions
• Public Education

HOW WAS THE SANTA CLARA COUNTY CWPP
UPDATE DEVELOPED?
A group of multijurisdictional agencies (federal, state, and local), organizations, and residents joined together to update and develop this countywide CWPP. Oversight was provided by a CWPP Management Team, responsible for the overall success of the project and composed of members of the FireSafe Council, Santa Clara County, and the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE); a CWPP Advisory Team, comprising subject matter experts who collaborated on the analysis, recommendations, outreach, and deliverables; and CWPP stakeholders who represent the CWPP annex holders and are key agencies, influencers, and partners in support of the overall efforts and implementation. These teams will be jointly referred to as the Planning Team. The composition of these teams is outlined in Appendix M. Several stakeholders with many years of experience working on CWPPs, as well as in-depth knowledge of fire management in the community and surrounding areas, have contributed to the development of this updated CWPP. The Planning Team provided a comprehensive review of the 2016 CWPP and identified needed revisions to strengthen the plan.

The CWPP planning process served multiple purposes. One was to integrate existing wildfire risk and hazard mapping into the revised plan. Utilizing this mapping process allowed the Planning Team to prioritize treatments tailored specifically for the community to reduce fire risk. The development of the 2023 CWPP also included public engagement, and community members were highly engaged in providing input. All public outreach was led by the Santa Clara County FireSafe Council. Various types of public outreach events were held to increase awareness and collect local input, and social media and online forums allowed for further engagement. Information on outreach efforts is included in Appendix I.

The CWPP planning process also brought together wildfire responders and land managers into a Planning Team, providing opportunities to build lasting working relationships and encourage collaboration. By incorporating public and Planning Team input into the recommendations, treatments are tailored specifically for the planning area. Overall, the Santa Clara County CWPP emphasizes the importance of collaboration among multijurisdictional agencies and the public in developing fuels mitigation treatment programs to address wildfire hazards.

In addition, this CWPP update was carried out concurrently with the 2023 update to the Santa Clara County Multi-Jurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan, and the Santa Clara County General Plan-Safety Element update. Representatives from all planning processes were actively engaged in the development of the CWPP; therefore, projects identified in this CWPP are in alignment with the wildfire-specific hazard mitigation actions identified in those plans.

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WHAT HAPPENED SINCE 2016?
Shortly after the 2016 CWPP final draft was produced in the summer of 2016, the county experienced several phenomena, including the Loma Fire in September 2016, that caused projects and goals to become outdated. This immediate change in fire history burned areas that were slated for vegetation management projects. Some of the proposed CWPP fuel breaks were constructed as a contingency plan during the Loma Fire and thus not immediately needed as projects. Upon the heels of the fall fire were 2016–2017 winter rains that created landslides, erosion, and flooding in the proposed planning area.

The county government prioritized these emergencies. It also affected outreach and preparedness education for the Santa Cruz Mountain and South County communities.

It was decided to take a tactical pause and update the draft before moving it to the Santa Clara County Board of Supervisors. California entered record-setting years of wildfires spanning from 2017 to 2020, and updates took a lower priority as resources were diverted to higher-priority response and recovery.

Next, the unprecedented pandemic of COVID-19 changed the nature of our society permanently. Shelterin-place health mandates beginning in March 2020 kept collaborators from meeting or traveling through the new project areas, and project design, collaboration, and implementation became very challenging during the early pandemic health orders. Again, the majority of resources in these related fields were diverted to respond to the pandemic.

Although the larger countywide effort was not restarted until 2022 for this update, multiple annex holders were able to pivot on smaller scales. Several annex holders adopted their annexes at the City, Town, or Fire District level. They also produced updates and public guidelines for easier consumption of the information in the initial CWPP. These updates and City, Town, and Fire District–level momentum has supported the current countywide update and will be included in the 2023 CWPP.

More background regarding the planning and policy actions of Santa Clara County is available in Appendix A.

WHY CREATE A STORY MAP FOR THE PROJECT?
The County of Santa Clara has opted to develop a story map (online web content) to disseminate information to the public and provide the community members with an opportunity to make contributions toward building their community’s wildfire resilience by providing valuable input. The story map presents the CWPP in a web layout with accompanying web maps and includes a project tracker. In addition to facilitating information sharing, the story map also provides the county with a platform that can be readily revised to keep the CWPP document up to date with current information. The Santa Clara County CWPP story map can be accessed at- https://santa-clara-cwpp-sccfc.hub.arcgis.com/ WHERE IS THE PLANNING AREA?
The planning area includes Santa Clara County as delineated by its geographic and political boundaries.

The area covered by a CWPP usually includes communities or parts of communities. This CWPP is developed at the Santa Clara County level and therefore addresses these requirements with a greater variety of participants than the community plans that have been previously completed. As a result, information associated with these requirements will be accessible to other communities in the county as they prepare their CWPPs and annexes, as well as providing a higher overview of wildfire issues,

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concerns, and risk reduction solutions throughout the county. The expectation is a set of common countywide strategic goals accompanied with specific target projects at the community level to achieve those goals.

More information regarding the planning area’s background and resources is available in Appendix B.

WHO PARTICIPATED IN DEVELOPING THE PLAN?
CWPPs alone provide no authority to enforce findings and conclusions; their value is in the collaboratively developed information and recommendations that can identify and guide activities that mitigate wildfire risk and hazard. The Santa Clara County CWPP can be used by government entities as a reference to guide land use planning and promulgate codes and ordinances in response to its recommendations. It can additionally be used by non-profit groups and residents to apply for grant funding, and all project leads to collaborate timing, economies of scale and shared resources to increase projects effectiveness The underlying theme of these various plans, and in particular CWPPs, is collaboration among the many stakeholders affected by wildfire. Chief among the components of collaboration is public education to provide not only information concerning the risk of wildfire but also to let stakeholders know about opportunities to participate in the management and mitigation of wildfire risk. CWPPs should be considered “living documents” because of the importance of revisiting and updating these documents periodically as new issues arise and results from recommendations in the CWPP, such as hazard reduction projects, develop. The value of the CWPP is ultimately to provide a framework for collaboration between the public, governments, agencies, and other entities affected by wildfire, so that they can discuss and jointly develop solutions and strategies for its management and mitigation.

Land managers across Santa Clara County participated in the development of this CWPP. Agencies such as the Santa Clara County Fire Department, Santa Clara County Firesafe Council, Santa Clara Valley Water District, California Transportation, and the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) along with other additional community or organization representatives, served as the Planning Team for this CWPP and drove the decision-making process. Several Planning Team members were involved in previous CWPPs in and around the county and have contributed their expertise to this CWPP. Planning Team members worked together to produce a preliminary areas of concern map (Figure ES.2 that would serve as a basis for further Risk-Hazard Assessment analysis and mitigation recommendations.

Please see Appendix M to see a full list of the preparers of this plan.

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Figure ES.1. Santa Clara CWPP planning area.

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Figure ES.2. A map showing Planning Team–delineated areas of concern.

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WHAT WAS THE PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT?
The CWPP process is designed to enhance outreach and education on the wildfire situation to the general public, local governments and agencies that may be unaware of the steps they can take to mitigate the risk of wildfire. The Planning Team engaged in public outreach using a multimedia approach, including the story map created for the project, social media posts, community surveys, and email distribution. In addition, the Planning Team hosted five in-person public meetings from December 1, 2022, through December 15, 2022, located across the county to provide access to all WUI communities.

Feedback, comments, and suggestions received from community members during community events, the community survey, and project recommendations review were synthesized and utilized to craft project recommendations for the Santa Clara County CWPP. Therefore, the project recommendations are specifically tailored to address the concerns and priorities of the community. Through the story map and hub site, and adopting the idea that the CWPP remains a “live document”, the FireSafe Council plans to continue to engage the public in implementation of the plan recommendations and in future CWPP updates.

WHAT IS THE CURRENT WILDFIRE SITUATION?
Santa Clara County is situated in northern California and contains a considerable portion of wildfire-prone land. Vegetation types across the county consist of evergreen and deciduous hardwoods, coniferous and deciduous forests, herbaceous plants, grasses, and shrubs. Fires are a natural part of the disturbance cycle for many of the vegetation types present within the county, with woodlands and forests burning more on the order of 30 to 100 years between fires. In the past decade, Santa Clara County has experienced several major wildfire events, including the SCU Lightning Complex, Crews Fire, and Loma Fire. The 2020 SCU Lighting Complex fires occurred in the hardwood stands of the Diablo Range and were the largest to occur within the county and fourth largest in California history, burning 395,000 acres in total (CAL FIRE 2022a). Many of the county’s forested areas comprise abundant fuels and possess highly varied topography, making them especially vulnerable to high severity wildfire. In addition, multiple factors have combined to increase forest susceptibility to wildfire; these include frequent drought, fire suppression-based forest management tactics, and climate change (see climate predicted wildfire hazard Maps 8 and 9 in Appendix J). Removing natural fire from a fire-dependent ecosystem, drought, insects, and diseases have resulted in increased fuel buildup and alterations to vegetation composition (Goodwin et al. 2021). These forest changes have been shown to increase the risk of uncharacteristically large, high-severity fires (Goodwin et al. 2021; Schoennagel 2017). The 2020 LNU and CZU Complex fires took place across Santa Clara County and in neighboring Santa Cruz County, burning through 86,500 acres of vegetative communities. In recent years across the western United States, including California, fires have grown to record sizes and are burning earlier, longer, hotter, and more intensely than they have in the past (Westerling et al. 2006; Westerling 2016).

WHAT IS THE RISK-HAZARD ASSESSMENT?
The purpose of the Risk-Hazard Assessment is to evaluate and provide information pertaining to the risk that wildland fires pose to values within the WUI of Santa Clara County. There are numerous indices and metrics used to assign wildfire risk and hazard ratings to communities, including the CAL FIRE statewide fire hazard severity zone mapping. While this CWPP integrates the FHSZ maps for context, the CWPP update integrates a new fine-scale mapping data set and a comprehensive risk and hazard analysis performed by a consortium of partners- the Santa Cruz Mountains Stewardship Network.

The Assessment was completed for Santa Cruz and Santa Clara County and is integrated into this planning effort with the support of those partners.

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The assessment of risk and hazard in the CWPP is twofold and combines the Risk-Hazard Assessment previously described and integrates the on-the-ground community hazard assessments that were completed in 2015 and 2016.

The purpose of these assessments is to provide information about wildfire hazard and risk to highly valued resources and assets (HVRAs) and use that information to develop projects and mitigation actions that can reduce that risk.

The Risk-Hazard Assessment approach is described in Chapter 3 and in Appendix D.

HOW WAS THE RISK-HAZARD ASSESSMENT COMPLETED
AND HOW DOES IT COMPARE TO CAL FIRE’S FHSZS?
The Risk-Hazard Assessment considers fire hazards from fire behavior characteristics such as flame length, rate of spread, and crown fire activity, burn probability, fire history (occurrence and size), and ember load index. Risk factors have also been incorporated into the assessment. These include suppression difficulty, fire response times, the WUI (a proxy for residences and population), and HVRAs.

The previously mentioned fire behavior components are generated by integrating several variables:
vegetation (type, density, and condition), topography (aspect, slope, elevation), and weather (wind, temperature, and humidity). All these components are combined and evaluated to produce a comprehensive and integrated model of wildfire risk within and around the County. The final product of the Risk-Hazard Assessment categorizes the landscape into four levels of risk: low, moderate, high, and extreme.

Comparably, CAL FIRE’s fire hazard severity zones (FHSZs) are defined based on vegetation, topography, and weather, and represent the probability of the area burning and potential fire behavior in the area. The best available science and data is used by CAL FIRE to develop these zone delineations, with the new iteration of the FHSZs also accounting for land use changes, recent fire history, new wind data, and local climate data. The FHSZ classification ranges from moderate, to high, to very high, and is delineated based on the average hazard present across the landscape (CAL FIRE 2022b, 2022c).

The primary differentiator between the CWPP Risk-Hazard Assessment and CAL FIREs FHSZs is that the CAL FIRE FHSZs account only for hazard, while the CWPP Risk-Hazard Assessment accounts for hazard and the likelihood of that hazard to cause damage and/or harm (i.e., risk). Hazards are recognized as physical conditions influencing fire behavior across a given landscape, while risk identifies the potential damage a fire can have under baseline conditions (CAL FIRE 2022b, 2022c). For example, the wildfire hazard can be high but if there are no values or assets in close proximity to the hazards, the risk will be low. This is why the incorporation of HVRAs and the WUI is crucial to generating an accurate assessment of hazard and risk. Additionally, the CWPP Risk-Hazard Assessment utilizes fine-scale mapping and data products to produce more customized and accurate model results. Wildfire risk to structures is quantified in 10-acre hexagons.

HOW IS MY COMMUNITY RATED?
Community field evaluations summarizing the hazard and risk for each WUI community within the County are provided in this plan, (Figure 2.1 [WUI and interface zones]). A team from SWCA Environmental Consultants conducted on-the-ground community hazard assessment surveys (field evaluations) throughout the county in the first round of the CWPP and revisited those communities that may have

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experienced significant changes to population, fuel composition, and hazard since the 2016 plan was completed. The communities were rated using the NFPA 1144 standard for assessing structure ignitability in the WUI (see Figure 1.3 in Chapter 1). Using this standard provided a consistent process for evaluating wildland fire hazards around existing structures to determine the potential for structure ignition from wildland fire ignitions.

Community evaluations provide a total score of risk and hazard based on various parameters observed during the surveys, and a corresponding descriptive rating of low, moderate, high, or extreme are available in Appendix C.

More specific information at a community level is provided in the CWPP annexes.

HOW WILL THE RISK-HAZARD ASSESSMENT IMPACT MY
INSURANCE?
The wildfire Risk-Hazard Assessment conducted for this CWPP is not intended to be used to determine insurance premiums of home and property. Insurance companies utilize their own wildfire risk assessments to write and renew policies. Furthermore, a partnership between Insurance Commissioner Ricardo Lara and the California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services (Cal OES), California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC), California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE), and California Governor’s Office of Planning and Research has led to the development of regulatory action that creates insurance incentives for implementing actions that build up home and community resilience to wildfire. This new wildfire safety regulation aims to make insurance more affordable while increasing public involvement in risk mitigation and awareness regarding local hazards (California Department of Insurance [CDI] 2023a). See Appendix A for more information on the Safer from Wildfire initiative.

Wildfire risk reduction actions identified in this CWPP (such as home hardening, creating defensible space, and community collaboration) are in alignment with the mitigation actions specified in the Safer from Wildfires initiative. Therefore, implementing actions to reduce wildfire risk, such as those identified in this CWPP, may support property owners to qualify for insurance discounts. Although the initiative is not yet fully implemented, this passed the Office of Administrative law in October 2022 and was effective April 2023. All insurance companies in California have to offer discounts to NFPA-recognized Firewise Communities (for more information visit: https://www.insurance.ca.gov/01-consumers/105-type/95- guides/03-res/Insurers-Currently-Offering-Discounts.cfm).

In April 2023 the “Bay Area Council announced results from a study conducted by Milliman and CoreLogic on behalf of the Town of Paradise that estimates mitigation measures such as home hardening, zoning reforms, and external buffers could reduce losses due to wildfires up to 75 percent, which could reduce insurance premiums up to 55 percent” (Bay Area Council 2023). Information on home protection, such as defensible space guidelines and vegetation treatments, is provided in Appendix F, Fuel Treatment Types and Methods, and Appendix G, Property Owner Resources.

WHAT ARE THE STRATEGIES TO ADDRESS
WILDFIRE HAZARDS?
The CWPP process identifies many types of mitigation strategies, including hazardous fuel modification, defensible space, signage, public education prevention messages, improved road access, water supply,

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and building materials and design. It should be noted that while all mitigation strategies will be useful, some will be more important in preventing destruction of a home.

Goal 1 of the Cohesive Strategy and the Western Regional Action Plan is to Restore and Maintain Landscapes: Landscapes across all jurisdictions are resilient to fire and other disturbances in accordance with management objectives (see Figure 4.1 in Chapter 4).

Recommendations for hazardous fuels treatments include:
• Fuel treatment and reduction using various strategies • Alignment with countywide planning
• Strategic fuel break installation
• Roadside treatments and fuel reduction on private land Goal 2 of the Cohesive Strategy and the Western Regional Action Plan is Fire-Adapted Communities:

Human populations and infrastructure can withstand a wildfire without loss of life and property (see Map 6 in Appendix J).

Recommendations for public outreach/education and structural ignitability include:
• Decreased ignitions from unhoused populations
• Defensible space and structural hardening improvements • Scaled-up community education and awareness
• Certification and inspections
Goal 3 of the Cohesive Strategy and the Western Regional Action Plan is Wildfire Response:

All jurisdictions participate in making and implementing safe, effective, efficient risk-based wildfire management decisions (see Figure B.8 in Appendix B).

Recommendations for improving fire response capabilities include:
• Addressing concerns related to poor ingress and egress in some high-risk communities • Water supply improvements
• Evacuation planning and route identification
• Wildfire response personnel training and partnerships Mitigation strategies must include monitoring and follow-up, and often require the development of codes, ordinances, and enforcement. Codes and ordinances help define the type and level of work needed to mitigate wildfire risk. A policy of creation of defensible space needs to have a definition of the amount of vegetation clearance. As noted in the state’s General Guidelines for Creating Defensible Space (2006), this definition can change periodically, as was the case with the revision of Public Resources Code (PRC) 4291, which increased the defensible space distance from 30 to 100 feet.

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WHAT DOES POST-FIRE RESPONSE AND RECOVERY
INVOLVE?
There are many aspects to post-fire response recovery, including but not limited to:
• Returning home and checking for hazards.
• Coordinating and mobilizing a group of teams in the community to respond to emergencies. • Rebuilding communities and assessing economic needs—securing the financial resources necessary for communities to rebuild homes, business, and infrastructure. • Restoring the damaged landscape—watershed restoration, soil stabilization, and tree planting. • Prioritizing the needs of vulnerable and disadvantaged communities during response and disaster recovery efforts.
• Evaluating and updating disaster recovery plans every 5 years to respond to changing needs and characteristics of the community.
• Coordinating with planning, housing, health, and human services, and other local, regional, or state agencies to develop contingency plans for meeting the short-term, temporary housing needs of those displaced during a catastrophic wildfire event.

Information regarding post-fire recovery and restoration can be found within Appendix H.

HOW WILL THE PLAN BE IMPLEMENTED?
The CWPP does not mandate implementation of any of the recommendations, but the message throughout this document is that the greatest fire mitigation can be achieved through the joint actions of individual property owners, tribes, and local, state, and federal governments. The CWPP project tracking tool will be the primary mechanism employed by the Planning Team to steer implementation actions and assess and track accomplishments. The FireSafe Council will be responsible for maintaining the tracking tool and working with partners to ensure it is utilized and kept up to date. Project recommendations have been developed at the county scale during this update, but individual annex holders are encouraged to develop more detailed recommendations for their jurisdictions, ideally tiering to the countywide plan.

All annex holders should coordinate closely with the FireSafe Council to update the project tracking tool, but annex documents will be self-governed, meaning that all annex holders are responsible for maintaining their own annexes and engaging the appropriate entities in the implementation of those plans.

The recommendations for fuels reduction projects are general in nature; site-specific planning that addresses location, access, land ownership, topography, soils, and fuels would need to be employed upon implementation. Also, it is important to note that the recommendations are specific to WUI areas and are expected to reduce the loss of life and property.

In addition, implementation of fuels reduction projects need to be tailored to the specific project and will be unique to the location depending on available resources and regulations. In an effort to streamline project implementation, this CWPP has identified the pertinent land management/ownership agencies associated with each recommendation. On-the-ground implementation of the recommendations in the

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CWPP planning area will require development of an action plan and assessment strategy for completing each project.

WHO WILL LEAD THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THIS CWPP?
Implementation of most projects identified in this CWPP will require the collaboration and cooperation of multiple individuals and entities such as community residents, fire safe councils, and local, state, and federal agencies. However, to ensure that projects move forward, the plan will be governed by the Santa Clara County FireSafe Council with support from local, municipal, state, and federal partners.

WHEN DOES THE CWPP NEED TO BE UPDATED?
The CWPP should be treated as a living document to be updated annually or immediately following a significant fire event. The plan should continue to be revised to reflect changes, modification, or new information. These elements are essential to the success of mitigating wildfire risk throughout the county and will be critical in maintaining the ideas and priorities of the plan and the communities in the future.

The FireSafe Council will coordinate all future CWPP updates. Chapter 5 provides an evaluation framework that can help guide the CWPP update process.

MANAGEMENT TEAM
Name Organization
Seth Schalet Santa Clara County FireSafe Council
Amanda Brenner Cannon Santa Clara County FireSafe Council Tara Wallichs Santa Clara County FireSafe Council
Stephen Harrington Santa Clara County FireSafe Council
James Wollbrinck Santa Clara County FireSafe Council
Dede Smullen Santa Clara FireSafe Council Board
Dennis Lollie Santa Clara County Fire Department
Brian Glass Santa Clara County Fire Department
Mike Mathiesen Santa Clara County Fire Department
Toma Louay Santa Clara County Office of Emergency Management Parastou Najaf Santa Clara County Office of Emergency Management Robert Cain Santa Clara County Department of Planning and Development Eugenia Woods Los Altos Hills County Fire District
Ed Orre CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit
Topher Byrd CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit
George Huang CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit
Victoria Amato SWCA Environmental Consultants
Breanna Plucinski SWCA Environmental Consultants
Liz Hitzfelder SWCA Environmental Consultants

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ADVISORY TEAM
Name Organization
Justin Stockman Santa Clara County Fire Department
Chelsea Young Santa Clara County Fire Department
George Huang CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit
John Reynolds CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit
Dale Martin Santa Clara County Central Fire Department
Michael Alvarez Santa Clara County Planning & Development, Building Official Magdalena (Eena) Sta Maria Santa Clara County Office of Sustainability Jasneet Sharma Santa Clara County Office of Sustainability Don Rocha Santa Clara County Department of Parks and Recreation Annie Thomson Santa Clara County Department of Parks and Recreation Michael Rhoades Santa Clara County Department of Parks and Recreation Brian Christian Santa Clara County Department of Parks and Recreation Nathan Greig Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority
Gene Zambetti Saratoga Fire Protection District
Trina Whitley Saratoga Fire District
John Delong South Skyline FireSafe Council
Tamara Jasso City of Palo Alto
Scott Woodfin City of Palo Alto
Crystal Bothelio City of Saratoga
Thomas Chin City of Cupertino
Meredith Albert City of Cupertino
Mark Thomas City of San Jose
Andrew Young City of Gilroy
Jim Wyatt City of Gilroy
Johnathan Crick City of Gilroy
Herb Lee City of Gilroy
Jennifer Fortino City of Gilroy Fire Department
Jennifer Ponce City of Morgan Hill
Nicolle Burnham Town of Los Gatos
Cody Einfalt Town of Los Altos Hills
Peter Pirnejad Town of Los Altos Hills
Sarah Johnston Aldercroft Heights Firewise
Mike Hacke Spring Valley Volunteer Fire Department
Alex Leman Loma Prieta Volunteer Fire Department

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Name Organization
Sunny Williams Santa Clara Valley Water District (Valley Water) David Fernandez San Jose Water Company
Jared Lewis San Jose Water Company
Bill Nantt California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Helen Blackmore California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Earl Sherman California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Shawn Casteel California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Kevin Conant Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E)
Stephanie Moreno Guadalupe-Coyote Resource Conservation District (GCRCD) Dina Iden Loma Prieta Resource Conservation District (LPRCD) Charlene Nijmeh Muwekma Ohlone Tribe
Monica Arellano Muwekma Ohlone Tribe
Ann Marie Sayers Indian Canyon Mutsun Band of Costanoan Kanyon Sayers-Roods Indian Canyon Mutsun Band of Costanoan Andrew Galvan The Ohlone Indian Tribe
Quirina Geary Tamien Nation
Valentin Lopez Amah Mutsun Tribal Band
Carol Rice Wildland Resource Management Inc
Esther Mandeno Digital Mapping Solutions
Brent Kirk Cattleman's Association
Ramona Garibay Trina Marine Ruano Family
Michael Gorman Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District Zac Harlow Blue Oak Ranch Reserve
Marjorie Kline Resident
For additional information on this project, please contact Seth Schalet, CEO of the Santa Clara FireSafe Council at [email protected] or SWCA Project Manager Victoria Amato at [email protected].

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CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
The United States is facing urgent forest and watershed health concerns. The number of annual wildfires throughout the United States has been slightly increasing (58,100 in 2018 and 50,000 in 2019 vs. 59,000 each in 2020 and 2021). Similarly, the number of acres burned has been on the rise (Congressional Research Service [CRS] 2022). An average of 7 million acres is burned every year due to wildfire; more than doubling the annual average of acres burned in the 1990s (CRS 2022). Communities are seeing the most destructive wildfire seasons in history. In the last five years, the 2020 fire season had the most acreage impacted in a single year at 10.1 million acres, and 2017 was the second highest with 10 million acres (CRS 2022). These statistics demonstrate that wildfires are becoming larger and increasingly impactful.

California’s Forests and Rangelands 2017 Assessment states that California, like other western states, faces urgent issues concerning frequent and severe pest and wildfire events that are unprecedented and threaten the sustainability of these ecosystems. These issues require reexamination of land and fire management policies and practices as human populations demand more from natural systems and climate change continues (CAL FIRE 2017).

The influence and effects of fire have changed as attempts were made to suppress it, with the consequent accumulation of more continuous and dense wildland fuels as historic burn mosaics were lost. More continuous fuels have led to larger, more intense wildfires, which are increasingly difficult and expensive to suppress, especially during periods of very dry and/or windy fire weather or episodes of widespread lightning activity, such as those that occurred in northern California in 2020 and started many fires, namely the SCU Fire Complex, which largely occurred in Santa Clara County. Either condition can quickly overwhelm local, state, and federal firefighting resources.

As wildfire severity increases, communities need a plan to help prepare for, reduce the risk of, and adapt to wildland fire events. Community wildfire protection plans (CWPPs) help accomplish these goals.

A CWPP provides recommendations that are intended to reduce, but not eliminate, the extreme severity or risk of wildland fire.

The development of the CWPP is rooted in meaningful collaboration among many stakeholders, including local, state, and federal officials. The planning process involves looking at past fires and treatment accomplishments using the knowledge and expertise of the professional fire managers who work for the

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various agencies and governing entities in the county. From there, the CWPP ultimately identifies the current local wildfire risks and needs that occur in the county, which is further supported with relevant science and literature from the western region of the United States.

The first CWPP for Santa Clara County was developed in 2015–2016 and included a countywide master document and 18 jurisdictional annexes. This document is an update to that plan and is designed to be a more engaging document, integrates new Risk-Hazard Assessment methodologies, and strives to facilitate greater implementation of project recommendations. In addition, this document, the 2023 Santa Clara County CWPP, reviews, verifies, and/or identifies potential new priority areas where mitigation measures are needed to protect from wildfire the irreplaceable life, property, and critical infrastructure in the county. However, this CWPP does not attempt to mandate the type and priority for treatment projects that will be carried out by the land management agencies and private landowners. The responsibility for implementing wildfire mitigation treatments lies with local ordinances and regulations and at the further discretion of the landowner; the 2023 Santa Clara County CWPP will only identify potential treatments and a suggested priority for these projects.

PLANNING OVERSIGHT

CWPP MANAGEMENT TEAM AND ADVISORY TEAM
A Management Team for the CWPP has been collaborating on the CWPP update since the summer/fall of 2021. The Management Team comprises representatives from the FireSafe Council, County, and CAL FIRE. An initial goal of the Management Team was to identify key stakeholders throughout the County to engage in the planning process. Stakeholder involvement is critical in producing a meaningful document that includes all collaborators’ diverse perspectives. The Management Team extended invitations to agencies to join the planning process in fall 2022, with a concerted effort to reach beyond those agencies who had been involved in the 2015–2016 planning process. That process led to the establishment of the CWPP Advisory Team that is composed of agency representatives, subject matter experts, and organizations responsible for implementing project recommendations. Many of these Advisory Team members are key annex holders who will be responsible for ensuring that the annexes are developed in alignment with the countywide CWPP.

The Management Team meets on a monthly and sometimes more frequent basis, as needed.

The Advisory Team convened for four meetings: November 2, 2022; January 24, 2023; April 4, 2023; and June 8, 2023.

The Management and Advisory Team List is provided in Appendix M and in the Executive Summary.

These teams will be jointly referred to as the Planning Team in this document. Detailed descriptions of the jurisdictions that make up Santa Clara County and their roles in fire management are provided in Appendix A.

GOAL OF A COMMUNITY WILDFIRE PROTECTION
PLAN
Wildfire continues to be a threat to communities across the United States; in the last few years, most western states have experienced the largest wildfires in their histories. Wildfires with a broad range of

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sizes and locations have destroyed hundreds of homes; the cost to suppress wildfires across the nation typically exceeds $1 billion annually (see Figure 3.6 in Chapter 3).

In recognition of this threat, many communities have worked to develop CWPPs, bringing together many stakeholders to develop strategies to mitigate the occurrence and effects of wildfire.

The goal of a CWPP is to enable local communities to improve their wildfire-mitigation capacity, while working with government agencies to identify high fire risk areas and prioritize areas for mitigation, fire suppression, and emergency preparedness. Another goal of the CWPP is to enhance public awareness by helping residents better understand the natural and human-caused risk of wildland fires that threaten lives, safety, and the local economy. The minimum requirements for a CWPP, as stated in the Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003 (HFRA), are:

Collaboration: Local and state government representatives, in consultation with federal agencies or other interested groups, must collaboratively develop a CWPP (SAF 2004).

Prioritized Fuel Reduction: A CWPP must identify and prioritize areas for hazardous fuels reduction and treatments and recommend the types and methods of treatment that will protect one or more communities at risk (CARs) and their essential infrastructures (SAF 2004).

Treatments of Structural Ignitability: A CWPP must recommend measures that property owners and communities can take to reduce the ignitability of structures throughout the area addressed by the plan (SAF 2004).

It is the intent of this 2023 CWPP to provide a countywide scale of wildfire risk and protection needs and then bring together all of the responsible wildfire management and suppression entities in Santa Clara County to address the identified needs and to support these entities in planning and implementing the necessary mitigation measures.

A key role of the Management Team was to develop project goals for the CWPP update. These goals were presented to the Advisory Team during the first Advisory Team meeting, and the final goals are presented below:
• Robust Analysis – Perform state-of-the-art analysis to identify wildfire hazard risks and human impact.
• Collaboration – Develop cross-jurisdictional collaborations and strategies to mitigate wildfire threats.
• Engagement – Ensure wide visibility of the CWPP within WUI communities and gain localized support.
• Adoption – Achieve full adoption of the Santa Clara County CWPP by the Santa Clara County Board of Supervisors.
• Implementation – Implement the 2023 CWPP successfully and update the Plan regularly to retain relevancy.

These goals will help address specific concerns and priorities identified by the Planning Team. Concerns and priorities outlined by the Planning Team include:
• Ingress/Egress – Under typical summer conditions, fire can move quickly in many of the fuels found throughout Santa Clara County. It is important that roadside vegetation is managed and evacuation routes are planned.

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• Fuel Loading – Hazardous fuels exist throughout many WUI communities in Santa Clara County.

Natural fire regimes in the area, such as chaparral and Gambel oak scrub, are conducive to short fire return intervals, and a lack of low and moderate severity fires can result in overgrown vegetation, resulting in hazardous fuels.
• Defensible Space – Defensible space is crucial in reducing the structural ignitability of homes and infrastructure. Providing managers and property owners with the knowledge and resources they need to effectively create defensible space will be a key priority of this CWPP. • Human Ignitions – Human ignitions are common throughout Santa Clara County. Fire department chiefs throughout the County have identified areas of concern regarding human ignitions within urban intermix areas and throughout the broader WUI.
• Public Education – Through community outreach, local programs, and education campaigns.

Many of the goals of this CWPP will require collaboration and engagement with local communities throughout the County. This process will help implement recommendations for solving the concerns highlighted by the Planning Team.

The Advisory Team has identified the following communities in order as having the greatest to lowest risk from wildfire:
• Los Gatos
• Monte Sereno
• Los Altos Hills
• Saratoga
• Western portions of the county
• Cupertino
Additional information on the planning process is available in Appendix A.

ALIGNMENT WITH THE NATIONAL COHESIVE

STRATEGY
The 2023 CWPP is aligned with the Cohesive Strategy and its Phase III Western Regional Action Plan by adhering to the nationwide goal “to safely and effectively extinguish fire, when needed; use fire where allowable; manage our natural resources; and as a Nation, live with wildland fire” (Forests and Rangelands 2014:3).

The primary national goals identified as necessary to achieving the vision are:
• Restore and maintain landscapes: Landscapes across all jurisdictions are resilient to firerelated disturbances in accordance with management objectives. • Fire-adapted communities: Human populations and infrastructure can withstand wildfire without loss of life and property.
• Wildfire response: All jurisdictions participate in making and implementing safe, effective, efficient risk-based wildfire management decisions.

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For more information on the Cohesive Strategy, please visit:
https://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/strategy/documents/strategy/CSPhaseIIINationalStrategyApr2014. pdf
Alignment with these Cohesive Strategy goals is described in more detail in Chapter 4, Mitigation Strategies.

In addition to aligning with the Cohesive Strategy, the CWPP also incorporates information on post-fire recovery, the significant hazards of a post-fire environment, and the risk that post-fire effects pose to communities (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1. CWPP incorporating the three primary goals of the Cohesive Strategy and post-fire recovery and serving as holistic plan for fire prevention and resilience.

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ALIGNMENT WITH PLANS AND AGREEMENTS
This CWPP is also aligned with multiple local, state, and federal planning documents, most notably the County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan (MJHMP) and the County General Plan Safety Element.

These planning processes were occurring concurrently during development of the CWPP, and representatives from all planning efforts collaborated to ensure alignment in development of the hazard and risk analysis and development of hazard mitigation measures. These documents or agreements are summarized in Appendix A. In addition, fire policy and legislative direction are also summarized in Appendix A.

PLANNING AND REGULATORY BACKGROUND
Detailed information regarding planning and regulatory background and land management strategies can be found in Appendix A, Planning and Policy Background.

PLANNING AREA
“The County of Santa Clara, also referred to as “Silicon Valley”, is unique because of its combination of physical attractiveness and economic diversity. With its numerous natural amenities and one of the highest standards of living in the country, the county has long been considered one of the best areas in the United States in which to live and work.” (County of Santa Clara 2022:1)
Santa Clara County encompasses 1,312 square miles and holds a population of nearly 1.9 million people.

The county is located on the southern end of the San Francisco Bay and comprises the fertile Santa Clara Valley, which is fringed on the east by the Diablo Mountain Range and on the west by the Santa Cruz Mountains. The northwestern portion of the County is composed of the Baylands, salt evaporation ponds, salt marsh, and wetlands. Due to the unique proximity of a large population center to montane (mountainous) regions, Santa Clara County faces considerable growth and development in the WUI.

In 2021, the county was estimated to have a population of 1,885,508 and contained 646,847 households (U.S. Census Bureau 2021).

Because wildfires often threaten areas much larger than individual communities, it is critically important that planning for the occurrence of wildfire occurs within communities and between communities.

In recognition of the advantages of a broader scope of wildfire preparation, multi-jurisdictional agencies, organizations, and residents have joined together to develop this plan, the 2023 Santa Clara CWPP. This larger scale of planning increases the level of coordination and cooperation among stakeholders, which can lead to broader and more efficient wildfire risk mitigation measures. For example, the CWPP can serve as the wildfire component within the Safety Element of the Santa Clara County General Plan, help prioritize and strengthen requests for competitive funding grants to reduce hazardous fuels, and facilitate the adoption of common standards for defensible space across Santa Clara County. Valuable ideas can be more readily shared with all communities within the County, greatly facilitating public education outreach efforts.

Additional detailed information on the County’s geography, infrastructure, demographics, recreation, and wildlife can be found in Appendix B, Community Background and Resources.

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The planning area for this CWPP includes all of Santa Clara County as delineated by its geographic and political boundaries (Figure 1.2). Figure 1.3 depicts community polygons delineated during the development of the initial 2016 plan for the purpose of categorizing WUI conditions and carried over to this CWPP update.

LAND OWNERSHIP
Much of both urban and rural Santa Clara County is held by private landowners, although a patchwork of public holdings exists throughout the county. The largest contiguous tract of public land is the section of 89,164-acre Henry W. Coe State Park in the Diablo Range that lies within the southeastern portion of the county (the Park also extends into neighboring Stanislaus County). The Santa Clara County Department of Parks and Recreation, with 28 regional parks covering nearly 52,000 acres, also holds a large portion of public land in the county (Santa Clara County Parks 2022). Other agencies and organizations such as the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority, and University of California manage publicly accessible land throughout the county as well (Figure 1.4).

The Advisory Team also included representatives of local tribes, and the integration of Tribal Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and the protection of tribal values was emphasized throughout the planning process and is strongly encouraged during CWPP implementation.

Landowner Portion of Santa Clara County
Private 73.66%
Local Government 15.20%
California Department of Parks and Recreation 7.20%
Other State Lands 1.33%
CDFW 1.09%
USFWS 0.96%
Non-Profit Conservancies and Trusts 0.39%
Bureau of Land Management 0.17%
Department of Defense 0.01%
Bureau of Reclamation 0.00%

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Figure 1.2. Santa Clara County general location map.

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Figure 1.3. Santa Clara County community boundaries map, developed through Core Team collaboration.

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Figure 1.4. Santa Clara County land ownership map.

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PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
A key element in the CWPP process is the meaningful discussions it generates among community members regarding their priorities for local fire protection and forest management (SAF 2004). The draft CWPP was made available for public review from June 19, 2023, through July 2, 2023. In addition to the CWPP report, Santa Clara County developed a CWPP story map (online content) to provide opportunities for information sharing and gathering. The story map and draft were announced through several different media outlets for review (Appendix I).

Every effort was made to include a broad cross section of the community in the outreach process, and different communication channels were used to engage as many members of the public as possible (e.g., social media postings, email distributions, and in-person activities). All community members were welcomed and encouraged to participate in in-person activities such as the community meetings.

Moreover, all community members were provided multiple opportunities to provide input, such as the community survey, project recommendations review, and CWPP document review.

Additional information regarding public involvement and outreach can be found in Appendix B.

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CHAPTER 2 – FIRE ENVIRONMENT

WILDLAND URBAN INTERFACE
The wildland urban interface (WUI) is composed of both interface and intermix communities and is defined as areas where human habitation and development meet or intermix with wildland fuels (U.S. Department of the Interior and U.S. Department of Agriculture [USDA] 2001:752–753).

Interface areas include housing developments that meet or are in the vicinity of continuous vegetation.

Intermix areas are those areas where structures are scattered throughout a wildland area where the cover of continuous vegetation and fuels is often greater than cover by human habitation.

At the national level, identification of WUI communities was initiated following the establishment of the National Fire Plan in 2000, with federal, state, and local agencies involved with this process. Delineation of the location of the WUI is a basic step in the identification of areas at most risk from wildfire, which can trigger requirements for the mandatory use of codes associated with building materials and defensible space.

In addition, the WUI has an area of influence, or influence zone. This area is described with respect to wildland and urban fire; it is an area with a set of conditions that facilitate the opportunity for fire to burn from wildland fuels to the home and or structure ignition zone (National Wildfire Coordinating Group [NWCG] 2021a).

A CWPP offers the opportunity for collaboration of land managers to establish a definition and a boundary for the local WUI; to better understand the unique resources, fuels, topography, and climatic and structural characteristics of the area; and to prioritize and plan fuels treatments to mitigate for fire risks.

At least 50% of all funds appropriated for projects under the HFRA must be used within the WUI.

According to the HFRA, the WUI can be defined in a CWPP. In this CWPP (Figure 2.1) utilizing the CAL FIRE WUI, the influence zone from the 2016 delineation was expanded to the ridgeline in the eastern region. Additionally, the influence zone was expanded to fill in gaps west of Morgan Hill.

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Figure 2.1. WUI with accompanying interface zones of Santa Clara County.

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At-risk communities were delineated prior to the on-the-ground community hazard assessments and were based on the presence of homes and structures surrounded by wildland fuels. A team from SWCA Environmental Consultants conducted on-the-ground community hazard assessments throughout the County in the first round of the CWPP and revisited those communities that may have experienced significant changes to population, fuel composition, and hazard since the 2016 plan was completed.

Buffers representing the WUI as defined above are presented in Appendix C for each community.

FIRE HAZARD SEVERITY ZONES
In California, WUI is further delineated with respect to Fire Hazard Severity Zones (FHSZs) (see Figure

3.1 in Chapter 3). California law established a classification of FHSZs for wildland areas that rank zones for potential likelihood and severity of wildland fires based on weather, vegetation type, topography, predicted fire behavior, ember production, and other factors. FHSZ ratings impact the nature of community design and building construction in State Responsibility Areas (SRAs), which are nonfederally owned, unincorporated areas that have wildland vegetative cover, watershed/range/forest value, and housing densities not exceeding three per acre (California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services [CA OES] 2018). In 1991, following the Oakland Hills Tunnel Fire, FHSZ ratings were extended beyond SRAs to include Local Responsibility Areas (LRAs), which are lands within incorporated cities, cultivated agricultural lands, or lands not meeting the criteria for SRAs or Federal Responsibility Areas (FRAs) (National Forest land, Bureau of Land Management [BLM] land, etc.). LRA fire protection is the responsibility of local governments (CA OES 2018) and is usually performed by city fire departments, fire protection districts, county fire departments, or CAL FIRE under contract to local government. LRA jurisdictions typically contain significant quantities of flammable vegetation and classified WUI, and CAL FIRE, in response to legislation, has developed state lists of WUI communities most at risk from wildfire based on fuel hazard assessments, vegetation types, fire behavior, large and damaging fire probability, and housing densities. A city can choose to adopt, modify, or reject CAL FIRE’s rating and recommendation, but this process facilitates the identification of locations in greatest need of hazardous fuels reduction projects, public education on wildfire risk and fire prevention, and improvements in the ignition resistance of structures. Federal identification of vulnerable WUI communities has also occurred in response to the National Fire Plan via Executive Order following a destructive 2000 national wildfire season.

The CWPP process is designed to focus on those areas within the county most at risk from wildfire; therefore, it is important to note that FHSZs evaluate wildfire “hazard” and not “risk.” As defined by CAL FIRE:
“Hazard” is based on the physical conditions that create a likelihood and expected fire behavior over a 30 to 50-year period without considering mitigation measures such as home hardening, recent wildfire, or fuel reduction efforts. “Risk” is the potential damage a fire can do to the area under existing conditions, accounting for any modifications such as fuel reduction projects, defensible space, and ignition resistant building construction. (CAL FIRE 2023a) So, while FHSZs help guide the community fire planning and mitigation process, the CWPP also considers how hazard and risk interface across the county using other fine-scale Risk-Hazard Assessment methodology.

It should be noted that CAL FIRE recently updated the FHSZs for the SRA in December 2022. The new FHSZs are currently in the public review process. The new iteration of the FHSZs accounts for land use changes, recent fire history, new wind data, and local climate data. FSHZs for the LRA are currently in development and expected for release in summer 2023 (CAL FIRE 2022b).

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Adopted WUI Zones (SRAs/LRAs)
The WUI creates an environment in which fire can move readily between structural and vegetative fuels, increasing the potential for wildland fire ignitions and the corresponding potential loss of life and property.

Human encroachment upon wildland ecosystems within recent decades is increasing the extent of the WUI throughout the country (Figures 2.3 and 2.2), which is having a significant influence on wildland fire management practices. Figure 2.3 shows an example of an unhoused encampment within the WUI, which poses increased potential for wildfire ignitions and exposes individuals living in and around these encampments to wildfire spread throughout the WUI intermix. Unhoused encampments can also pose dangerous environments for first responders. Emergency response systems select between wildfire and structural fire when determining which responders to send. Fires within homeless encampments hold the non-natural combustion materials of a structural fire (plastics, medications, structural materials, etc.) but have the ignition dangers of a wildland fire (dense vegetation, no defensible space, no on-site water supply). These hazards greatly impact the type of gear and training needed to respond to this incident, and an incorrectly categorized fire may result in first responders deployed without proper personal protective equipment (PPE). Combined with the collective effects of aggressive suppression policies, resource management practices, land use patterns, climate change, and insect and disease infestations, the expansion of the WUI into areas with high fire risk has created an urgent need to modify fire management practices and policies and to understand and manage fire risk effectively in the WUI (Pyne 2001; Stephens et al. 2005). Mitigation techniques for fuels and fire management can be strategically planned and implemented in WUI areas, for example, with the development of defensible space around homes and structures.

Figure 2.2. Example of the WUI in the Santa Clara County.

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Figure 2.3. An unhoused encampment in San Jose.

WUI LAND USE
Cities and counties are continuously challenged to accommodate both current and future residents in need of safe and affordable housing. In California, an estimated 2.5 million homes must be built over the next 8 years to meet demand, including at least 1 million homes suitable for low-income households (California Department of Housing and Community Development 2022). Over the past few decades, jurisdictions across the state have approved many new housing units. These are often placed within or near to wildland areas, creating WUI conditions. Today, more than 46 million residences in 70,000 communities are at risk for WUI fires (U.S. Fire Administration [USFA] 2021a). When it comes to wildfire, this trend is of special concern since WUI conditions are linked with an increased risk of loss of human life, property, natural resources, and economic assets. According to the 2018 Strategic Fire Plan for California, “since the turn of the century there has been a steep increase in structures lost compared to the 1990s” (CAL FIRE 2018).

Additional Fire Code information is described in Appendix A.

Appendix C houses descriptions and hazard ratings for each community evaluated within Santa Clara County. The WUI maps in Chapter 2 depict the entire WUI boundary for each community. The WUI buffer is an area where fuel treatments should be prioritized in order to provide additional protection to the community from potential wildfire spread.

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SOCIAL VULNERABILITY
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) defines social vulnerability as the susceptibility of social groups to the negative impacts of natural hazards (e.g., wildfire), which include disproportionate death, injury, loss, or disruption of livelihood (FEMA 2022). A sole hazard occurrence can bring about considerably different impacts for distinct individuals, even if the magnitude of the hazard was the same for the entire community. Specific groups of individuals may be more susceptible to natural hazards because of socioeconomic status, physical state, or other factors. For instance, elderly individuals may have more difficulty in quickly evacuating during wildfire emergencies, which may make them more susceptible to entrapment. In other cases, low-income individuals may be less able to harden and upgrade their homes to reduce structural ignitability, indicating that they can face a higher probability of their home being damaged or destroyed should a wildfire event occur.

As defined by the U.S Forest Service’s (USFS’s) Wildfire Risk to Communities (USFS 2022), socially vulnerable populations include the following: families living in poverty, people with disabilities, people over 65 years of age, people who have difficulty with English, households with no car, and people living in mobile homes. Statistics on socially vulnerable populations with the entirety of Santa Clara County as estimated by the USFS’s Wildfire Risk to Communities is provided in Table 2.1 below. Populations particularly at risk from wildfire include people over 65, people with disabilities, and people dwelling in mobile homes. Visitors and non-local property owners may also be at higher risk if they are not familiar with local guidelines regarding property management (defensible space, fire-resistant vegetation, fireresistant building materials, etc.) and may not be registered or within reach of local emergency notifications. In addition, renters of these properties may not receive emergency alerts as they are not local residents. Socially vulnerable populations may need additional support with regard to preparing for wildfire, evacuating from wildfire, and returning to their community post-fire.

Table 2.1. Estimated Socially Vulnerable Populations at Risk from Wildfire in Santa Clara County Population at Risk Number Percent
Families in poverty 19,668 ± 1,059 4.3 ± 1.6
People with disabilities 155,216 ± 2,654 8.1 ± 1.5
People over 65 years 259,988 ± 2,946 13.5 ± 2.3
Difficulty with English 158,711 ± 3,531 8.8 ± 0.7
Households with no car 33,974 ± 1,371 5.3 ± 1.4
Mobile homes 18,498 ± 1,002 2.9 ± 2.6
Source: USFS (2022)
Wildland firefighters are also populations at risk from wildfire. Wildland firefighting is an inherently dangerous profession where firefighters risk their health and lives while battling fires. Wildland firefighters are especially vulnerable to medium- and long-term health and safety risks associated with smoke and chemical inhalation and other conditions while firefighting, as well as immediate risks that may endanger their lives due to the fire environment. Historically, fire in Santa Clara County has been responsible for injuries and destruction of property. For example, the Santa Clara Lightning Complex fires of 2020 were responsible for 225 destroyed structures and six injuries over the course of 44 days of active burning (State of California 2020). Mitigating the risks of severe wildfires on the landscape and within the WUI will reduce the chances of wildfire hazards impacting firefighters and other vulnerable populations.

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According to the 2017 Santa Clara County Multi-Jurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan, social vulnerability for wildfire hazards is elevated for sensitive populations in the County, including children, the elderly, and individuals with underlying respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Santa Clara County 2017).

See Map 10 in Appendix J for Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) socially vulnerable populations.

UNHOUSED POPULATIONS
With continued economic and social trends exacerbating the level of housing insecurity, urban areas throughout the United States have recently experienced significant increases in unhoused populations.

As a result, fire departments are responding to a growing number of incidents involving fires that impact unhoused people and their shelters or encampments. In order to survive in often harsh environments without adequate protection from the elements, many people living in unhoused communities utilize fire as a tool for general survival. This includes burning open flames to allow themselves to keep warm and cook food. Very few people living under these conditions are aware of fire safety. Additionally, unhoused people are often situated in areas of existing high fire risk, such as densely vegetated riverbank or vacant and unmaintained buildings. Jurisdictions across the country face difficulties addressing the houselessness crisis due to legislative and political barriers, causing the issue to stagnate and fire risk to persist among these vulnerable populations. In search for a solution, nonprofit and research organizations have begun examining the behaviors that contribute to fire risk and establishing programs through which unhoused people are provided fire safety gear and proper training to educate them in fire safety and response. These groups are advocating for increased awareness to both those experiencing houselessness and the wider public, with a push for intervention and assistance to those at risk (NFPA Journal 2023). The increased ignition risk posed by unhoused populations, and the wildfire exposure and risk to these communities has been raised throughout the County, especially in areas throughout the City of San Jose. These areas are not typically classified as WUI, but due to the growing hazards in these areas, mitigation measures to address the hazard are recommended at the CWPP annex level, when appropriate.

In terms of fire response for incidents impacting these groups, the variable nature of fires affecting unhoused people can add complexity to coordinating proper and effective response protocols. Unhoused encampments can be located in areas that demand the exercise of either wildland or urban fire response capabilities, and occasionally may necessitate a hybrid approach. Responders must also account for other safety concerns such as hazardous materials and lack of structural integrity from makeshift shelters.

VEGETATION AND LAND COVER
The landcover in Santa Clara County is diverse and is primarily a function of topography. In the Santa Clara Valley, developed and urbanized land cover types dominate the north half of the valley centered around the City of San Jose. The undeveloped areas around the City of San Jose are mostly tidal wetlands and marshlands. The south half of the valley is home to the communities of Morgan Hill and Gilroy, both of which are surrounded by large swathes of farming and ranching lands intermixed with rural development. The Diablo Mountains are largely undeveloped and contain several parks including Henry W. Coe State Park, along with Joseph D. Grant, Anderson Lake, Coyote Lake Harvey Bear Ranch, and Ed R. Levin county parks. To the west, the Santa Cruz Mountains also contain large sections of public land, such as the Serra Azul Open Space Preserve and several county parks including Calero, Almaden Quicksilver, and Sanborn.

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Vegetation zones within the county are primarily a function of elevation, slope, aspect, substrate, and associated climatic regimes. Since a broad range in elevation and topography exists across Santa Clara County, characteristics in vegetative communities are quite variable from site to site (Figure 2.4).

Vegetation data, from which fuel models are derived, are sourced from Tukman Geospatial’s Pacific Veg Map (Tukman Geospatial 2022).

Dominant vegetation types within the county are described based on a large spatial scale and represent the overall community structure that will play a general role in fire occurrence and behavior. Although the vegetation types are outlined, site-specific evaluations of the vegetative composition and structure in each area of focus should be taken into consideration when planning fuels treatments.

Major vegetation types in the county include evergreen and deciduous hardwoods, both of which are found in the foothills and high country of the Santa Cruz and Diablo Mountains. However, the Santa Cruz Mountains are wetter and support thicker stands of coniferous and deciduous forests than the drier Diablo Range to the east. Large intact stands of California redwoods are endemic to the Santa Cruz Mountains and can be found southwest of Gilroy and along the western border of Santa Clara County. Due to the 2020 SCU Lightning Complex fires that occurred in the Diablo range, much of the vegetation there has transitioned from mature conifers to shrubs and herbaceous plants as post-fire succession is underway.

Additionally, herbaceous plants, including grasses, and shrubs are the dominant vegetation components in the lower-elevation foothills and valley ecosystems throughout the county, as depicted in Figure 2.4.

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Figure 2.4. Vegetation types across Santa Clara County.

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TOPOGRAPHY AND FUELS
Santa Clara County encompasses the fertile Santa Clara Valley, which runs from south to north and contains large swathes of agricultural and urbanized land. The valley is split into two regions, the North Valley and the South Valley. The North Valley is adjacent to San Francisco Bay and contains braided creeks and stream channels that spill into several tidal wetlands, salt marshes, and abandoned salt ponds. The South Valley is slightly higher in elevation at approximately 350 feet above mean sea level and contains many agricultural lands, which are flanked by deep narrow lakes and reservoirs. At its widest in the north, the Santa Clara Valley is about 11 miles wide; at its narrowest in the south, the valley is about 2.5 miles wide. A low saddle near the middle of the valley represents the watershed divide between the Coyote Valley Watershed with its pour point located in San Francisco Bay and several watersheds to the south in which streams flow southward ultimately terminating in Monterey Bay (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012). The Advisory Team has identified riparian areas near critical infrastructure and natural resources as areas of concern. Vegetation can build quickly in these riparian corridors, and they often connect wildland fuels to the WUI and urban areas. The Advisory Team has also identified several canyons on the east side of the Santa Clara Valley as having significant brush buildup, which under severe wildfire conditions may endanger the WUI.

The Santa Clara Valley is surrounded by the rolling hills of the Diablo Range to the east and the Santa Cruz Mountains to the west. The Santa Cruz Mountains rise to a maximum elevation of 4,000 feet and are characterized by steep and rugged country that is carved by deep draws and drainages. The foothills of these mountains roll gently downslope to the alluvial fan geomorphology of the flatter valley below.

The Diablo Range contains several high points, ranging from 2,500 feet to its highest peak, Mt. Hamilton, at 4,213 feet tall. The Diablo Range is skirted by dissected hills, but the interior of the range still contains alpine features like those of the Santa Cruz Mountains. The two mountain ranges in Santa Clara County greatly influence diurnal (daytime) and orographic (mountainous) winds and dictate precipitation distribution from incoming moisture sourced from the nearby Pacific Ocean to the west (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

The fuels in the planning area are classified using Scott and Burgan’s (2005) Standard Fire Behavior Fuel Model classification system. These fuel classifications were used in determining several model inputs, including predicted flame length (weighted heavily), extreme fire weather potential, and suppression difficulty (weighted lightly). The resulting outputs include classified wildfire risk and structure density, which are used in calculating the overall wildfire risk to structures. Please see Chapter 3 for more information on fine-scale mapping as it pertains to the fuel modeling process. This classification system is based on the Rothermel surface fire spread equations, and each vegetation and litter type are broken down into 40 fuel models within seven fire-carrying fuel types:
• (NB) Non-burnable
• (TU) Timber-Understory
• (SH) Shrub
• (GR) Grass
• (TL) Timber Litter
• (GS) Grass-Shrub
• (SB) Slash-Blowdown
The fuels found in the north half of the Santa Clara Valley (Figure 2.5) are predominantly urban development (NB9) or bare ground (NB1). In the south half, much of the fuel type is made up of agriculture (NB9) surrounded by expansive grasslands (GR1, GR2). Mixed grass and shrub (GS) fuel types are found in the foothills of the Diablo Range. At higher elevations, grass fuel components transition to shrub dominant fuel types (SH) ranging from low (SH1, SH2) to heavy fuel loads with some areas

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containing dense and tall shrub fuel types (SH5, SH7). Certain elevational contour bands along western aspects in the Diablo Range support dead and downed wood fuel composed mostly of broad leaf litter (TL2). On the other side of the Santa Clara Valley in the Santa Cruz Mountains more forested fuel types can be found. These include grasses and shrubs intermixed with conifer litter beneath forested canopies (TU1, TU5). Fuel loads decrease slightly with higher elevation transitioning from fuel model TU1 to TU5.

Additionally, on the western slopes of the Santa Cruz Mountains denser and wetter broadleaf forests can be found, which contribute to more downed woody debris and litter fuel types with varying densities (TL1–8).

While there are many fuel types within Santa Clara County, a few fuel types make up the dominant landcover across the service territory. These dominant fuels are described below in the Fire Regimes subsection.

Table 2.2. Scott and Burgan 2005 Fuel Model Classes within Santa Clara County Existing Fuel Type Acres Portion of County
GR2 232,739 27.88%
GR1 104,729 12.55%
TU5 100,881 12.08%
NB9 91,327 10.94%
NB1 63,477 7.60%
GS2 43,295 5.19%
TU1 35,631 4.27%
SH7 34,656 4.15%
GS1 34,415 4.12%
SH5 21,149 2.53%
NB3 18,016 2.16%
NB8 17,783 2.13%
GR4 8,007 0.96%
Other 28,663 3.43%
Total 834,774 100%

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Figure 2.5. Fuel model classes across Santa Clara County.

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EMBER IGNITION HAZARDS
Ember exposure from wildland fires can pose a significant threat to homes and other structures in the WUI (Maranghides and Mell 2013). Spotting occurs when embers travel in advance of the flaming front; long-range spotting can be miles ahead of the main fire. Many factors determine whether an ember will result in an ignition (firebrand source and size, wind, receiving materials, exposure duration, etc.).

Burning structures and other materials (vehicles and ornamental vegetation) have been identified as another source of embers that can ignite additional combustible materials in the WUI, particularly when there is a low structure separation distance (Maranghides et al 2022; Suzuki and Manzello 2021).

Short-range spotting is not considered significant in the growth of wildfires and is typically accounted for in wildfire spread model outputs. Long-range spotting is differentiated from short-range spotting, primarily because firebrands (flaming or glowing fuel particles that can be carried naturally by wind, convection currents, or gravity into unburned fuels) are being lifted by a convection column and carried beyond the immediate fire area (NWCG 2021j, 2023b). Several factors affect the extinction time of firebrands and the maximum distances they can travel from their origin. Firstly, the canopy characteristics of tree stands such as tree species, canopy height, and diameter at breast height will affect the quantity and size of firebrands produced during a wildfire. The height of downwind tree stands will affect the number of firebrands that reach ignitable vegetation (NWCG 2021j). Thick and ablative bark species (e.g., ponderosa pine and Douglas fir) can produce large firebrands, but maximum spotting distances will be much less than firebrands originating from more resinous species with thinner and lighter bark (e.g., Gambel oak and knobcone pine).

Secondly, several weather- and landscape-related factors influence the distance firebrands can travel.

Wind speed and atmospheric stability are functions of firebrand travel distance. Atmospheric stability is defined as the atmosphere’s resistance to vertical motion (NWCG 2023a). The potential for wildfire growth can be estimated by measuring the stability and dryness of the air over a fire using the Lower Atmosphere Stability Index (LASI), or Haines Index (USFS 1988). The Haines Index is a numbered scale from 1 to 6, with 6 representing the highest rate of spread (ROS) possible. Hot, dry air over a wildfire can create an unstable atmosphere (Haines Index 5–6) and is conducive to creating a large convective column, which will provide the energy necessary to loft larger embers further away. Therefore, the Haines Index is often a good predictor of large, plume-dominated fire growth and higher firebrand travel distances.

The absolute humidity of the air also greatly influences ember extinction times. Humid conditions can extinguish airborne firebrands before they land, while dry conditions allow firebrands to continue smoldering. This same logic is applied when defending structures. For instance, sprinkler systems that are used for structure protection are meant to raise the relative humidity of the surrounding air rather than wet the actual structure, as ember wash is one of the main causes of structural ignitions and pre-contact ember extinction is ideal for reducing structural ignitability (Nazare et al. 2021). Additionally, local topography can influence where an ember may land. For example, ridges can “catch” firebrands, and steep valleys often “collect” embers. Wind slope alignment, which is common in the western United States, can cause high rates of ember production and lofting distances depending on the burning fuel type. Similarly, the position and orientation of structures can impact the collection of embers and potential ignition potential.

The effect of embers on structure ignitions cannot be overstated, and land managers and property owners should take note of vegetation, landscape, and atmospheric conditions that are conducive to firebrand production and travel, as these directly influence spotting fire behavior and potential loss of

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values at risk (VARs). Strategic landscape fuel reduction activities such as fuel breaks and thinning can help reduce the likelihood of firebrand production and spotting. Property owners should note surrounding tree species and implement home hardening practices, such as installing vent covers, regularly clearing gutters, and sweeping leaf litter from decks and foundation, to reduce structural ignitions from ember wash.

See Map 5 in Appendix J for a map of ember load index.

FIRE REGIMES
Wildland fires are a function of the climate in which they occur, the vegetation that drives them, and the occurrence and frequency of ignitions. The nexus of these factors for a particular ecosystem or landscape is considered a fire regime, or the way that fire interacts with and shapes an environment. Fire regime can be described with many parameters that indicate the dynamic forces behind wildland fire events, including seasonality, predictability, spatial patterns, magnitude, frequency, and extent. Fire regimes are important to understand as they can provide insight into the temporal, ecological, and geographic factors that impact fire hazard and risk.

Within Santa Clara County, different vegetation types (see Figure 2.4) exhibit their own unique fire regimes, and each has played an important role in shaping the ecology and landscapes of the area today.

Grasslands and introduced species associated with developed areas typically dominate the lowest elevations in the county, while chapparal and coastal scrub occupy slightly higher elevations. Chapparal, scrub, and grasslands also mix with mosaic oak woodlands at low to mid elevations and give way to oakand conifer-dominated forests at higher elevations, particularly on mesic north-facing slopes.

Throughout history, fire return intervals in Santa Clara County would have varied as a function of these vegetation types. Pre-settlement fire histories of grasslands and chaparral are difficult to determine due to the lack of dendrochronological evidence associated with fire events in the ecosystems (Van de Water and Safford 2011). However, prior to Native American impacts, many areas that are now grasslands are thought to have been more dominated by scrub (Ford and Hayes 2007) due to longer fire return intervals between naturally (lightning) caused events. Following Native American habitation and settlement, fire likely became more common across Santa Clara County. Documentation exists of Native Americans burning shrublands along the California coast to reduce the vegetation type’s extent and promote the growth of grasses and forbs (Keeley 2002a). This burning is thought to have resulted in extended ranges of grasslands and mosaic networks of oak and chaparral vegetation of various life stages across the county. The predicted fire return interval of chapparal during this time frame was likely in the range of 20 to 80 years (Van de Water and Safford 2011), while woodlands and forests during this period would have experienced between 30 and 100 years between fires.

Similar to other areas in across the nation and in California, it is likely that fire suppression, changing land use, and changing land management has resulted in more hazardous wildfire conditions in Santa Clara County (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012). Grasslands in particular have experienced marked shifts in dominant species assemblages as invasives colonize following grazing and wildfire disturbances.

These invasive species are known to hold the potential to significantly shift the patterns and behaviors of wildfires (Klinger et al. 2006). While conversion of fuel type can increase the severity and frequency of fire events, the climatic and ignition components of fire regimes are also shifting notably. Climate change has resulted in precipitation levels that are trending downwards along with increasingly warm and dry summers (CAL FIRE 2022d). While smaller fuels such as grass have historically dried out to highly fire prone levels during warm summer months, these recent weather changes are resulting in more

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landscape level shifts in fuel moistures and decreases in 100- and 1000-hour fuel (trees, logs, etc.) moisture contents. For example, Valley Water (SCVWD) has identified riparian corridors as a particular concern of wildfire risk in Santa Clara County. These riparian areas can produce substantial fuel loads over many years and during drought years vegetation turns to kindling and becomes a significant wildfire hazard. Furthermore, an increasing population, particularly in the WUI, has also led to increased ignitions, especially during timeframes when fuel moisture contents are low and use of areas containing wildland fuels are high (e.g., summer). This change has not only resulted in more fires but provided opportunities for large fires with extreme fire behavior to propagate (CAL FIRE 2022d).

Additional information on fire regimes for the different vegetation types found in Santa Clara County can be found in the following sections.

GRASSLAND
Grassland in Santa Clara County consists of herbaceous vegetation dominated by grasses and forbs.

Grassland in the county includes the following land cover types:
• California annual grassland (non-native) – found in valley bottoms, lower elevations on the eastern side of the county, and on ridges on dry south- and west-facing slopes. • Non-serpentine native grassland (native) – patchily distributed in the county and generally occurs as small patches within the larger annual grassland complex. • Serpentine bunchgrass grassland (native) – occurs on ultramafic soils derived from serpentinite, limited in extent in the county.
• Serpentine rock outcrop/barrens (native) – occurs on exposures of serpentine bedrock that typically lack soil and are sparsely vegetated, limited in extent in the county. • Serpentine seep – found in dry areas where water penetrates the surface and creates a small wetland habitat that supports wetland vegetation.
• Rock outcrop (non-serpentine) – rare in the county.

Periodic fire is an important influence on the grassland community. Keeley (2002a) suggests that dense scrub or chaparral had little value to Native Americans, so they used periodic burning to clear shrubs and provide habitat for fire-tolerant native grasses. Keeley (2002b) also implies that the current mosaic of grassland is likely a result of historic vegetation management that favored open grasslands over chaparral. Historically and prehistorically, fires from both lightning strikes and human ignition kept woody vegetation from invading grassland (where the soil conditions are appropriate) and converting it to coastal scrub or oak woodland. While prescribed burning is considered an important management tool in grasslands and other natural communities (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012), such burning is becoming increasingly difficult to implement due to cost, safety concerns from expanding urban and rural development, and difficulty obtaining permits because of air quality concerns. It has not been feasible in most places to burn frequently enough to control the spread of woody species into existing grassland or to reduce the cover of woody vegetation within grasslands because of the natural resistance and resilience of the woody plants to a single burn (Ford and Hayes 2007). Livestock grazing has continued on most rangelands in Santa Clara County and is regarded as generally beneficial in maintaining suitable habitat conditions for many special-status grassland-dependent species.

Grassland is considered a fire-tolerant community, since the low-intensity prescribed fire moves so quickly that the fire burns only above the lower few centimeters of material, leaving much unburned or

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only charred on the ground. Immediately following a grassland fire, areas typically see an increase in annual forb germination and flowering and an increase in overall productivity in response to the light and nutrients made available by the removal of the thatch layer during the following growing season (Harrison et al. 2003). In grasslands that are already dominated by non-native annual grasses, non-natives may increase their dominance following fire by outcompeting natives for the newly available space and light.

Native grasses may increase their dominance in serpentine grasslands following fire through the same mechanism (Harrison et al. 2003).

CHAPARRAL AND NORTHERN COASTAL SCRUB
Chaparral shrub communities are found in rocky, porous, nutrient-deficient soils and steep slopes throughout Santa Clara County and are dominated by densely packed evergreen woody shrubs, 1.5 to 4 meters tall. Dominant shrubs in this community in Santa Clara County are chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum), manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), scrub oak (Quercus berberidifolia), and ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.).

Northern coastal scrub is characterized by low shrubs that are generally more flexible with higher moisture content and thinner stems than the stiff shrubs of chaparral. The plants range from 0.5 to 2 m tall interspersed with openings favored by native bunch grasses. Common plants of coastal scrub include California sagebrush (Artemisia californica), coyote brush (Baccharis pilularis), sticky monkey-flower (Mimulus aurantiacus), golden yarrow (Eriophyllum confertifolium), and California melic grass (Melica californica).

Native Americans frequently burned shrublands to encourage grass and forb development (Keeley 2002a). Plants in the chaparral and northern coastal scrub communities have evolved to persist despite periodic wildfire; some of the species are dependent on periodic fire for regeneration (Holland 1986; Hanes 1988; Schoenherr 1992). Some chaparral species have fire adaptations such as peeling bark, volatile oils, and seeds that require fire to initiate growth that promote fire (Rundel and Gustavson 2005; Schoenherr 1992; USFWS 2002). Chaparral is an important refuge for certain sensitive animals (Cornell Lab of Ornithology 2023). Despite the adaptations of many plants to periodic fire intervals, the notion that chaparral “needs to burn” is strongly disputed by some researchers.

Sprawl of human habitation in chaparral and shrub communities poses a great threat to both these plant communities and habitable structures. Similar to the various woodlands and forests, buildup of fuel over many years increases the risk of catastrophic fire (USFWS 2002). Severe topsoil erosion is also a problem after intense fires, particularly if they burn hot enough to kill the burls and lignotubers of woody chaparral plants (Schoenherr 1992).

OAK WOODLAND
Oak woodlands are a common cover type found in Santa Clara County. A number of oak-dominated woodlands can occur:
• Valley oak woodland – common in the valley floors but also along ridge tops. • Mixed oak woodland and forest – most geographically widespread of all oak woodlands in the county.
• Coast live oak woodland and forest – commonly found abutting grassland areas.

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• Blue oak woodland – present in scattered locations mostly in the low to mid-elevation hills on dry or well-drained north- or northeast-facing slopes.
• Foothill pine-oak woodland – often occurs along valley floors within chaparral communities in the eastern foothills and also adjacent to other oak land cover types and on serpentine soils. • Mixed evergreen forest – occurs on the west side of the Santa Clara Valley, usually on northfacing slopes.

Oak-dominated woodlands are thought to have been more prevalent in Santa Clara County historically and have become fragmented as a result of urban development and agricultural uses (Grossinger et al. 2006).

Oak woodland is a fire-adapted ecosystem, and fire has likely played a large role in maintaining this community type in the county. Fire creates the vegetation structure and composition typical of oak woodlands, and this natural community has experienced frequent, low-severity fires that maintain woodland or savannah conditions. In the absence of fire, the low or open understory that characterizes this land cover type can be lost. Depending on site characteristics closed canopy oak forests can be replaced by shade-tolerant species and conifers if oaks cannot regenerate and compete as shade encroaches. Soil drought may also play a role in maintaining open tree canopy in dry woodland habitat.

Mixed evergreen forests on the northern slopes of the Santa Cruz Mountains are being heavily impacted by drought, sudden oak death (SOD), and bark beetle infestations, resulting in widespread die-off of certain oak species, tanoak (Notholithocarpus densiflorus), and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) that leaves large openings in the woodlands, full of hazardous fuels where sunlight penetrates and dries out the ground.

SUDDEN OAK DEATH
A recent influence on oak woodlands is SOD. The disease, first identified in 1995, has since spread to 15 counties and killed hundreds of thousands of oaks (California Oak Mortality Task Force 2023).

Research indicates that members of the black oak family such as coast live oaks (Quercus agrifolia) and black oaks (Q. velutina), as well as tanoak, appear to be the most susceptible to this disease (Rizzo et al. 2003). SOD is caused by the water mold pathogen Phytophthora ramorum (P. ramorum) and is a serious threat to oak woodlands and mixed evergreen forests in northern California.

The pathogen can kill adult oaks and madrone (Arbutus menziesii); California bay (Umbellularia californica), buckeye (Aesculus californica), and maple (Acer spp.) host the pathogen without being killed by it. Members of the white oak family such as blue oak (Quercus douglasii) and valley oak (Q. lobata) have not shown symptoms of the pathogen.

RIPARIAN FOREST AND SCRUB
Riparian areas of Santa Clara County are broken down into the following:
• Willow riparian forests, woodland, and scrub – occur in or along margins of active channels on intermittent and perennial streams.
• Central Californian sycamore alluvial woodland – generally present on broad floodplains and terraces along Coyote Creek and Pacheco Creek.

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• Mixed riparian woodland and forest – occur in or along margins of active channels on intermittent and perennial streams.

These vegetation types are found in association with riverine watercourses along streambanks and floodplains and surrounding open water bodies. Within the last 100 to 150 years, extensive anthropogenic altercations have been made to riparian areas and much of the existing stream networks have been largely developed with human intervention and creation of canals and ditches.

CONIFER WOODLAND
There are three conifer-dominated vegetation communities that occur in Santa Clara County (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012):
• Redwood forest – coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) occurring primarily in the Santa Cruz Mountains. Adjacent cover types are mixed oak woodland and mixed evergreen woodland.

Occurs in areas that receive substantial rainfall >35 inches per year. Redwood-dominated overstory and tanoak (Notholithocarpus densiflorus), madrone, and California bay understory trees; hazelnut (Corylus cornuta var. californica), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), and black huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum) in the shrub layer. In riparian areas, California bay and bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) are common, California nutmeg (Torreya californica) may occur, and ferns such as sword fern (Polystichum munitum) often form a dense layer. • Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) woodland – restricted distribution within the county, only occurring on three high elevation ridges in Henry W. Coe State Park—Pine Ridge, Middle Ridge, and Blue Ridge—and extending downslope into north-facing canyons and valleys. • Knobcone pine (Pinus attenuata) woodland – consists of dense stands of knobcone pines that regenerate following fire. Uncommon in the county, occurring only in the Santa Cruz Mountains on ridge top sites, often on serpentine-derived soils. Knobcone pine is an obligate fire-climax species—fire is required to melt the resin that seals the cones, releasing the seed, and fire also creates the bare mineral soil required for the seeds to germinate. Stands of knobcone pine are therefore even-aged, dating back to the last stand-replacing fire.

Prior to European settlement, the Santa Clara Valley supported a mosaic of plant and wildlife communities and the upland regions were heavily forested with redwoods and pine and oak woodlands.

In the mid to late 1800s, the foothill forests and woodlands were heavily thinned to support regional population growth.

A major factor influencing the distribution of conifer-dominated land cover types is fire intensity and frequency. The combination of logging and burning at the end of the nineteenth century resulted in the conversion of conifer-dominated forests (redwood and Douglas fir) in the Santa Cruz Mountains to grassland or chaparral and oak-dominated woodlands (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

Periodic stand-replacing fire is required for the regeneration of knobcone pine woodland.

IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE
This cover type encompasses all areas where the native vegetation has been removed for irrigated agriculture (not including rangeland) and includes:
• Orchards – apricot, prunes, and walnuts predominantly.

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• Vineyards – occur throughout the county but predominantly in the southern portion. • Agriculture (developed) – i.e., greenhouses, nurseries, Christmas tree farms; occurs in small patches throughout the county.
• Grain, row crops, hay, and pasture – abundant throughout the Santa Clara Valley south of San Jose.

Father Junípero Serra gave Santa Clara Valley its name when he consecrated the Mission Santa Clara de Asis in 1777 (National Park Service 2018). The establishment of the mission also heralded the beginning of large-scale agriculture in the Santa Clara Valley. Soon, the Guadalupe River dam (located near Mission Santa Clara) was constructed for irrigation of wheat, corn, bean, and other crops.

Fruit trees and grapes were also cultivated.

Population growth in the county has been continuous since 1850. In order to facilitate the sustained growth in 1870, Los Gatos Creek was diverted to meet water demands for agriculture. Improved access to railroads also led to increased agricultural production in the county at that time. Agricultural products included carrots, almonds, tomatoes, prunes, apricots, plums, walnuts, cherries, pears, grapes, and lumber for the world market (National Park Service 2018). The rural nature of the Santa Clara Valley lasted through to World War II, after which time cultivated lands were reduced to make room for urban expansion.

While irrigated agriculture can burn under the right conditions, such events are typically isolated to when large adjacent wildland fires enter cultivated fields, orchards, and vineyards.

INVASIVE NON-NATIVE PLANT COMMUNITIES
In addition to native grasslands, shrublands, and woodlands, Santa Clara County contains plant communities of species that are not native but exist outside agricultural or developed areas. Scattered non-native escaped plants are not likely to significantly change fire behavior or affect other natural resource values. However, some species can dominate or even completely take over areas, excluding natural vegetation and changing fuel characteristics. Examples of non-native plant communities and invasive species of concern for wildfire include:
• Grassland: wild oats (Avena spp.), yellow star thistle, curly dock (Rumex crispus) • Rock outcrops: fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), broom species (Bromus spp.), cotoneaster (Cotoneaster spp.), jubota grass (Cortaderia jubata)
• Seeps and riparian: poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), teasel (Dipsacus spp.), jubota grass, arundo (Arundo spp.), Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)
• Shrublands: French broom (Genista monspessulana), Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius), gorse (Ulex spp.), fennel
• Mixed oak woodland: Ivy (Hedera spp.), locust, privet (Ligustrum spp.), acacia (Acacia spp.) • Valley oak woodlands: milk thistle (Silybum marianum) • Mixed evergreen: periwinkle (Vinca spp.), English ivy (Hedera helix) • Replacement woodlands: blue gum eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), acacia, tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima)

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Several invasive, non-native plant species are found in riverine land covers within the study area. One of the most prevalent is giant reed (Arundo donax), which is often found in large pure stands. Other invasive, non-native plants potentially found in the study area include blue gum eucalyptus, acacia, fennel, periwinkle, French broom, black locust, English ivy, Algerian ivy (Hedera canariensis), cape ivy (Delairea odorata), Himalayan blackberry, weeds, curly dock, thistle, blackwood acacia (Acacia melanoxylon), tree-of-heaven, glossy privet (Ligustrum lucidum), fig, and poison hemlock (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

CLIMATE AND WEATHER PATTERNS
Santa Clara County has a Mediterranean climate, with most precipitation occurring during the winter months and virtually no precipitation from spring through autumn (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012). July is typically the hottest month of the year in the county, with average July maximum mean temperatures ranging from 84.4 ºF in the West Almaden area to 87.2 ºF in the Gilroy area. December is usually the coldest month, with average December minimum temperatures ranging from 37 ºF in the Gilroy area to 40.6 ºF in the West Almaden area (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA] 2022). Mean annual temperatures are consistent throughout the valley and into the base of the mountain range, with the valley experiencing more variability in extreme temperatures.

Mean annual precipitation within the county is moderate, ranging from 19.77 inches in the Gilroy area to

32.52 inches in the West Almaden area. The highest precipitation levels usually occur from late fall to early spring in Santa Clara County. The lowest precipitation levels occur from early summer to mid fall, meaning the driest period that the county faces occurs from June to September. However, precipitation levels are contingent on location. Areas closer to the mountains typically receive more precipitation than the valley. For example, the West Almaden area, near the base of the Santa Cruz Mountains, receives a mean total precipitation of 32.53 inches during the drier months, whereas the Gilroy area receives

19.77 inches (Table 2.3) (NOAA 2022).

Higher elevations, however, such as the Santa Cruz Mountains, typically have the highest precipitation totals (40–60 inches/year) compared with the relatively dry Santa Clara Valley, where the city of San Jose has average precipitation of approximately 12 inches per year. The Diablo Range, though drier than the Santa Cruz Mountains, experiences greater precipitation than the adjacent valley, with totals ranging from 20 to 30 inches a year, especially at higher elevations. Various microclimates also occur in the county; for example, canyon areas of north-facing hill slopes and streams with less direct sunlight will have lower evapotranspiration, greater ambient soil moisture, and generally more moderate, cooler temperatures due to higher moisture content and greater shading (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

The topography of Santa Clara County, coupled with its proximity to the Pacific Ocean, greatly influences wind patterns. Spring and summer see the greatest wind speeds, with sometimes strong afternoon and evening winds on summer days. Summer “Diablo winds” can carry hot, dry air from the Central Valley over the Diablo Range and flow across Santa Clara Valley and then upslope over the Santa Cruz Mountains from a northerly direction toward the Monterey Bay. These winds drove both the Lexington Fire and the Summit Fire.

The United States is experiencing a cycle of the highest average temperatures in recorded history.

California shares this phenomenon and is also sustaining an atmospheric temperature increase of

1.4 degrees C, which is creating a dramatic change in the health of native vegetation. Tree mortality from drought stress and pests such as bark beetles and the pathogen that causes SOD have increased significantly (Williams et al. 2019; USFWS 2023). Westering (2016) also notes that western forest wildfire

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activity increased abruptly in the 1980s and appears to be strongly associated with warming and changing precipitation patterns attributed to climate change. Although this research focused on lightningcaused fires on western federal lands, widespread changes in the patterns and amounts of precipitation will influence wildland fuel availability and wildfire activity in many areas (Williams et al. 2019).

An increase in wildfire activity, such as due to longer fire seasons or due to higher rates of fire spread and intensity as a result of changes in fuel types, will further stress the limited number of fire suppression personnel available for structure protection. This further highlights the importance of pre-fire preparation, such as structural defensibility.

Additional information regarding environmental challenges can be found in Appendix B.

Table 2.3. Mean Annual Temperature and Precipitation by Station in Santa Clara County Mean Annual Temperature (°F)
Location Period of Record Mean Annual
Precipitation (Inches) Max Min Mean Annual
West Almaden 1991–2020 32.52 70.5 46.9 58.7
Gilroy 1991–2020 19.77 74.3 46.1 60.2
North Coyote Reservoir 1991–2020 21.53 69.1 48.6 58.8
Source: NOAA 2023, PRISM 2023.

Monthly climate normals (30-year averages) for Santa Clara County are graphed by location below (Figures 2.6–2.8).

Figure 12.6. 30-year monthly normals for temperature and precipitation for West Almaden, 1981–2010 (Source: PRISM 2023).

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Figure 2.7. 30-year monthly normals for temperature and precipitation for Gilroy, 1981–2010 (Source: PRISM 2023).

Figure 2.8. 30-year monthly normals for temperature and precipitation for North Coyote Reservoir, 1981–2010 (Source: PRISM 2023)

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FIRE HISTORY
Fire is a natural part of California’s diverse landscape and ecological history and is essential to many ecosystems across the state. Almost all of California’s diverse ecosystems are fire-dependent or fireadapted. For centuries, many California Native American tribes recognized this interdependence between fire and the ecosystem and used prescribed burning to maintain and restore ecosystem health.

However, in the 1800s, a shift in management actions—settlers began enforcing strict fire suppression regimes—led to challenges such as dense stand conditions, unhealthy rangelands, and increased ecosystem and community vulnerability to fire. Evidence suggests that the fire regimes in Santa Clara County have experienced shifts due to changes in land use, land development, invasive and non-native plant establishment, wildland fire suppression. This is supported ample evidence that shows vegetation communities and fire regimes have experienced significant departures from historic conditions due to anthropomorphic interference (Syphard et al. 2007). This trend coupled with the likelihood of increased temperatures and prolonged drought periods perpetuated by climate change increase the risk of wildfire for those in San Francisco Bay Area communities such as Santa Clara (Association of Bay Area Governments 2023).

PAST FIRE MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND LAND

MANAGEMENT ACTIONS
Fire management in California and the western United States has adapted over time in response to changing knowledge of forest ecosystems. In 1910, just 5 years after the USFS was established, massive fires burned over 3 million acres of the agency’s land in northern Idaho and western Montana, prompting a federal fire suppression policy to protect ecosystem services and timber stands (USFS 2017). The National Park Service and BLM were established in 1916 and 1946, respectively, and adopted similar land management philosophies. In the 1970s, forest management research began to reveal the natural role of wildfire in ecosystems (USFS 2017) and by the turn of the century complete fire suppression tactics on publicly managed lands were mostly replaced with combinations of suppression, containment, and mitigation measures such as fuel treatments and prescribed burning (Forests and Rangelands 2021). CAL FIRE has followed a strategic arc similar to that of the federal agencies responsible for fire response, initially focusing on suppression until eventually incorporating wildfire management practices in line with our modern understanding of fire ecology (CAL FIRE 2022e; Van Wagtendok 2007). Although these practices now protect and restore public lands through more scientifically supported methods, some areas in Santa Clara continue to show signs of these historic management practices, requiring brush removal and abatement for encroaching native brush and longterm buildup (Santa Clara County Fire Department [SCCFD] 2023a). See the map below for a detailed look at past treatments that have occurred in Santa Clara County. The Advisory Team for the CWPP emphasize the importance of integrating Tribal Ecological Knowledge (TEK) into land management practices throughout the County, ensuring that land management strategies consider historic cultural practices for rangeland, watershed, and forest health stewardship.

More information regarding land management strategies can be found in Appendix A.

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RECENT FIRE OCCURRENCE
This section was developed using fire history data from CAL FIRE’s Fire and Resource Assessment Program (FRAP) (CAL FIRE 2022f). Although the fire history data from CAL FIRE is the most comprehensive digital record of fire perimeters in California, it has its limitations. CAL FIRE states that the earlier data (i.e., prior to 1950) is subject to significant uncertainty due to poor and inconsistent record keeping. In addition, data for some fires may be missing or have incorrect information. This is due to the loss or damage of historical records as well as inadequate documentation (CAL FIRE 2022f). Given the limitations of the data, our fire history analysis may contain discrepancies.

An analysis of Santa County’s wildland fire history (1931–2020) (CAL FIRE 2022a) shows that the county’s most substantial fires have occurred in forested mountain areas, with smaller fires occurring at a higher frequency in the foothills and valley (Figure 2.9). Though a significant number of fires have taken place throughout the county since 1950, it is worth noting that larger fires began to occur in the 1980s (Figure 2.9). In addition to fires showing an increase in magnitude over time within the county, they are also occurring at a higher frequency. Santa Clara County suffered a higher number of wildfires between the years 2020 and 2022 alone than the entirety of wildfires occurring from 1950 to 2019. This increase in wildfire frequency and severity is shown in Figures 2.9 through 2.14. Representing the largest fire in county history, the SCU Lightning Complex took place in 2020 and burned through a significant portion of the eastern region of the county. Having occurred just outside of the planning area, but within a similar vegetative community as the western region of county, was the 2020 CZU Fire Complex. This highly destructive fire burned through 86,509 acres of Santa Cruz and San Mateo Counties, resulting in a fatality. These occurrences demonstrate the county’s and surrounding area’s capacity to experience devastating wildfire events given the climate, vegetation, population, and other key risk factors present.

California’s peak region fire season has been estimated to occur between May and October (NWCG 2022). Santa Clara County’s recent fire history reflects this, as most fires occurred within the period of June to September, which is when high temperatures and drier conditions are more probable across the county (Figure 2.13). Of the fires with known causes, humans have been the primary cause of wildfire ignitions; however, natural ignitions are also common. Since 2022, humans have been responsible for 80.4% of the fires that have occurred within Santa Clara County and have a known ignition source, with many of these human-caused ignitions occurring near the county’s municipalities or in areas of recreation (Figure 2.9) This high percentage is likely to due to the high number of recreationists in Santa Clara County and the large proportion of WUI within the county.

In the past decade, Santa Clara County has experienced several major wildfire events, two of which took place during the 2020 fire season. Occurring in in the Santa Cruz Mountains and burning 4,474 acres over the course of 357 days, the Loma Fire destroyed 28 structures and required the suppression efforts of 62 firefighter personnel. The cause of ignition for this fire remains uncertain (CAL FIRE 2016). Burning just east of the 101 Highway in the city of Gilroy from July 8 to July 13, the Crews Fire would go on to scorch 5,513 acres of land, claiming four structures. The suppression efforts involved the use of 10 fire engines, 125 firefighting personnel (CAL FIRE 2020a). The cause of ignition for this fire is still under investigation. The SCU Lightning Complex fires burned across Santa Clara, Alameda, Contra Costa, San Joaquin, and Stanislaus Counties over the course of 46 days, claiming 396,624 acres of land.

The fires lead to the destruction of 225 structures, damage of 26 structures, and six personnel and civilian injuries (CAL FIRE 2022g).). The SCU Lightning Complex is the fourth largest fire in state history (CAL FIRE 2022a).

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Figure 2.9. Recent wildfire history in Santa Clara County.

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Figure 2.10. Decadal wildfire frequency for Santa Clara County from 1950 through 2022, based on available data.

Figure 2.11. Decadal fire size statistics for Santa Clara County based on fire history data from 1950 through 2022.

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Figure 2.12. Decadal acres burned per decade for Santa Clara County based on fire history data from 1978 through 2022.

Figure 2.13. Number of recorded fires per month in Santa Clara County from 1978 through 2022

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Figure 2.14. Cause of wildfire ignitions in Santa Clara County from 2014 through 2022.

EXTREME FIRE BEHAVIOR PATTERNS
The largest wildfires in Santa Clara County, much like other coastal counties such as San Diego, Santa Barbara, and Los Angeles, tend to be associated with east wind conditions, also referred to as Diablo winds in the Bay Area. Such winds are associated with high-pressure systems over the Sierras and concurrent lows off the coast. The presence of very low relative humidity, warm to hot temperatures, and strong winds, along with continuous wildland vegetation and moderate to steep topography, can quickly lead to disastrous wildfire behavior even if conditions persist for only a few hours. Spotting behavior is especially active because low relative humidity causes extremely dry, receptive fuels to occur, with spot fires often igniting more than a mile in front of the fire itself. Suppression operations are further complicated in high winds because air tankers cannot fly safely, winds disperse retardant before it hits the ground, and/or smoke obscures the location of the fire. Therefore, while relatively rare, extreme fire behavior patterns can cause the vast majority of damage and cost associated with the fire season.

Moreover, failure to plan and prepare for this type of fire behavior leaves virtually no time to correct defensible space or communication deficiencies.

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FIRE RESPONSE CAPABILITIES
Figure 2.15. Map of fire agency service areas in Santa Clara County.

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PLANNING DECISION AND SUPPORT
Wildfires have continued to grow in size and severity over the last decade, requiring fire managers to institute more robust pre-fire planning as well as adapt and improve decision-making tools in order to reduce risk to fire responders and the public, assess impacts on ecological processes and justify the use of local, state, and federal resources (Map 7 in Appendix J).

Significant inequity between political jurisdictions can do more damage than just being a disservice to the less-funded jurisdiction, it can lead to a fractured fire service. Interagency collaboration and cooperation require an equal playing field.

FIRE RESOURCES
California contains many federal, state, and local fire protection organizations that are well integrated through a variety of mutual aid and fire protection agreements and coordinated by organizations such as the California Wildfire Coordinating Group, the Northern and Southern California Geographic Area Coordination Centers (GACCs), and FIRESCOPE. Agencies such as California Emergency Management, USFS, and CAL FIRE form the basis for a very substantial wildfire response capacity that can be deployed in wildfire situations throughout the state. California contains what many regard as the strongest wildfire suppression capability in the nation (Figure B.7 in Appendix B).

The National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) plays a critical role in providing national leadership to promote interoperable wildland fire operations across federal, state, local, Tribal, and territorial partners.

Their duties include establishing national standards for wildland fire operations, position qualifications, and performance support resources. They also support the goals of the National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy, prioritize information technology capabilities for wildland fire, and ensure that all NWCG activities contribute to safe, effective, and coordinated national interagency operations.

Santa Clara County’s fire response services are carried out by a collection of state, county, and city level units, many of which are engaged in auto-aid or cooperative agreements allowing for a strengthened collaborative effort to address fire hazards. The Santa Clara CAL FIRE unit operates across multiple counties, with four battalions located in Santa Clara County: Battalion One (Morgan Hill), Battalion Two (San Jose), Battalion Three (West Santa Clara County), and Battalion Seven (South Santa Clara County Fire District and Morgan Hill Fire Department). The Santa Clara County Fire Department operates within most of Santa Clara County, providing response services to the communities of Campbell, Cupertino, Los Altos, Los Altos Hills, Los Gatos, Monte Sereno, Redwood Estates, Saratoga, and the adjacent unincorporated areas of Lexington and Summit. Equipped with their own city fire departments are the cities of Palo Alto, San Jose, Morgan Hill, and Gilroy (all with WUI designated areas), managing fire response and other forms of emergency services within their service areas.

Detailed information regarding local, state, and federal fire response capabilities for Santa Clara County can be found in Appendix B.

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CHAPTER 3 – RISK-HAZARD

ASSESSMENT

PURPOSE
The purpose of developing the Risk-Hazard Assessment model described here is to create a unique tool for evaluating the risk of wildland fires to communities within the WUI areas of Santa Clara County.

Although many definitions exist for hazard and risk, for the purpose of this document these definitions follow those used by the firefighting community:

Risk is defined as the chance of a fire starting as determined by the presence and activity of causative agents (NWCG 1998).

Hazard is a fuel complex defined by kind, arrangement, volume, condition, and location that forms a special threat of ignition and resistance to control.

The CWPP leverages both a field assessment, completed in 2016, and a revised desktop spatial analysis that is described below and in Appendix D. From these assessments, land use managers, fire officials, planners, and others can begin to prepare strategies and methods for reducing the threat of wildfire, as well as work with community members to educate them about methods for reducing the damaging consequences of fire. The fuels reduction treatments can be implemented on both private and public land, so community members have the opportunity to actively apply the treatments on their properties, as well as recommend treatments on public land that they use or care about.

The purpose of this Risk-Hazard Assessment is to provide a community- and landscape-level overview of wildfire risk and is not recommended for use at smaller scales (such as for a property level analysis). It is also not recommended for use in determining insurance rates or policies. This Risk-Hazard Assessment is a model, and as such has inherent biases, missing data, and other shortcomings, though every effort has been made to include the best available data and use the most robust scientific processes. Also note that just because an area is shown as high or low risk does not mean that that area will be burned or not burned in a wildfire—a low risk area can still be affected by wildfire if the conditions are right. This RiskHazard Assessment is also not intended for use during active wildfire events, but rather only as a tool for pre-fire planning. It is not recommended that this Risk-Hazard Assessment be used for any other purpose than what is stated here.

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FIELD-BASED COMMUNITY HAZARD ASSESSMENTS
Community Hazard Assessments were conducted in 2015/16 using the NFPA Wildland Fire Risk and Hazard Severity Form 1144 (see Appendix C and Appendix K). This form is based on the NFPA Standard for Reducing Structure Ignition Hazards from Wildland Fire 2013 Edition. The field assessment results were reviewed by the Planning Team and determined accurate and therefore they were not revisited during the CWPP update.

The purpose of the Community Hazard Assessment and subsequent ratings is to identify fire hazard and risks and prioritize areas requiring mitigation and more detailed planning. These assessments should not be seen as tactical pre-suppression or triage plans. The Community Hazard Assessment helps to drive the recommendations for mitigation of structural ignitability, community preparedness, and public education. The assessment also helps to prioritize areas for fuels treatment based on the hazard rating.

Each area was rated based on conditions within the community and immediately surrounding structures, including access, adjacent vegetation (fuels), defensible space, adjacent topography, roof and building characteristics, available fire protection, and placement of utilities. Each score was given a corresponding adjective rating of low, moderate, high, or extreme.

The community hazard ratings from the field assessment are provided in Table 3.1. This table also includes a summary of the positive and negative attributes of a community as they relate to wildfire risk.

Summaries of each community, including building density, degree of wildfire hazard, dominant fuel types, and NFPA 1144 findings, are provided in Appendix C and can be used to populate content in the jurisdictional annexes.

FIREWISE COMMUNITIES
The following communities within Santa Clara County are participating Firewise communities.

The Firewise recognition program contributes to community-level wildfire resilience by providing a framework for adaptive wildfire preparedness. The program facilitates greater community collaboration and provides educational resources for residents to mitigate wildfire impacts on their property and neighborhood as a whole. Dates represent when they were approved as a Firewise community. (NFPA 2023CIT):
• Saddle Mountain Neighborhood – Los Altos Hills, CA. 08/10/2022 • Garrod Heights – Saratoga, CA. 10/23/2020
• Old Oak Way – Saratoga, CA. 10/08/2021
• Brush Road – Lexington Hills, CA. 12/18/2020
• Chemeketa Park – Los Gatos, CA. 06/17/2019
• Aldercroft Heights – Los Gatos, CA. 12/31/2020
• Wilderfield/Whiterock/Bear Mountain Roads – Los Gatos, CA. 12/07/2022 • Jackson Oaks Homeowner Association (HOA) – Morgan Hill, CA. 09/18/2016 • Holiday Lake Estates – Morgan Hill, CA. 12/12/2018
• Riva Ridge HOA – Los Gatos, CA. 09/06/2019

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EVACUATION CAPABILITIES
Wildfire response may necessitate the involvement of law enforcement agencies to provide for the safety of life and property during evacuation. Santa Clara County has several evacuation resources to guide citizens and emergency response personnel. The Santa Clara County Local Fire Service and Rescue Mutual Aid Plan is a joint effort among city and county departments led by law enforcement. This plan outlines leadership and joint partnerships during emergency operations and details protective action terms including evacuation resources in the Mutual Aid Plan (Santa Clara County 2017).

The CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Fire Plan also identifies pre-response and evacuation planning during a wildfire. An objective of the plan is to maintain an evacuation route between Santa Clara and Santa Cruz counties. CAL FIRE highlights the importance of working in cooperation with the Santa Clara County FireSafe Council, local law enforcement, and other local cooperators to develop evacuation plans and fire plans for communities at risk susceptible to a major incident (CAL FIRE 2018b).

Santa Clara County has resources for informing and involving citizens including AlertSCC and Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) training via the Santa Clara County Fire Department (Santa Clara County 2023d). Road systems and community signage are also important factors in pre-response and evacuation planning. More information on response and evacuation resources can be found in Appendix B.

Many communities throughout the county have been identified as having limited ingress and egress, and as such, the planning team and members of the public have identified the establishment of alternative escape routes and other measures to facilitate safe evacuation of residents, as a priority in this plan.

Disclaimer: Local, County, and State law enforcement evacuation notices should always be followed and supersede any guidance and evacuation information in this CWPP.

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Table 3.1. Communities at Risk Ratings with Community Hazard Assessment Summary Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
Almaden Valley 50 (Moderate) • Appears to have a good water system through community
• Access is generally good throughout the
community
• Most homes have well-maintained and irrigated
yards with moderate defensible space
• Many subdivisions are managed by homeowner
associations (HOAs) that provide a conduit for
fire prevention and public education
• High concern topography near structures
• History of wildfire occurrence in area
• Some signage is non-reflective
• Lacking widespread fire protection construction
practices
Cupertino 81 (High) • Surfaced roads but some steep routes • Good visible house markers
• Well signposted
• Surfaced, maintained roads
• Reasonable water supply via hydrants but low
pressure in some areas
• Irrigated lawns and landscaping
• Under Santa Clara County Fire Department
jurisdiction
• HOAs for some subdivisions that can facilitate
community organizing
• New construction, 7A compliant
• Some heavy fuel loading adjacent to homes as
a result of thick underbrush and continuity of
tree crowns
• Thick fuels in canyon
• >30 feet of defensible space around most
homes, but <100 feet around many
• Steep grades and varied topography
• Building construction includes wood siding,
wooden decks, and fences that can act as fuses
from vegetation to homes
• Adjacency of some residential structures
• Some homes >5 miles from fire response could
result in slow response time
• Some gated dead-end roads
• Single-lane, narrow roads
• Wood shake roofs present
• Propane tanks aboveground
• Number of wineries and CVARs
• Heavy population density
• Some homes have limited setback from slope

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
East Foothills 68 (Moderate) • Good fire response resources from San Jose Fire
• Department and CAL FIRE
• Roadside fuel treatments in progress
• Large open space areas break up residential
areas
• Good yard hygiene for most homes, landscaped
yards
• Non-continuous light fuels
• Sparse population in more rural areas
• Grazing helps in fuel reduction in some areas
where appropriate
• Diverse WUI, from distinct interface with heavily
urban area to scattered residences in an
intermix
• Different planning needed for each type
• Scenic roadways may increase ignition potential
• Ignition concerns related to Sierra Road—
fireworks etc.
• CVARs: Grand View Restaurant, Lick
Observatory, Copernicus Peak communications
site, Alum Rock Park
• >30 feet of defensible space around most
homes, but <100 feet around many
• Mix of construction types; building construction
includes wood siding, wooden decks, and
fences that can act as fuses from vegetation to
homes
• Wood shake roofs and older construction in
some areas
• Many dead-end spur roads
• Topographic concerns, rolling hills and some
steep slopes
• Grassland fuels that are highly dynamic and
impacted by seasonal climate fluctuations
• Flashy shrub fuels present on slopes below
homes
• Slow response times to some more remote
homes in the valley
• Improvements to road networks needed
• No distinct neighborhood associations to use to
develop common interest for neighborhood level
interactions for Firewise or CERT

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
East Gilroy 72 (High) • Generally good roads
• Good separation of adjacent structures
• Response: Station <5 miles from structure
• Some limited access roads to individual
properties
• Street signs are present, some are nonreflective
• Adjacent fuels: Moderate with high
flammability
• Concerning topography around structure
• Non-combustible siding, combustible deck
• Both utilities aboveground
• Moderate history of fire occurrence and severe
weather
• Non-combustible sidings but combustible
decks present
Gilroy 48 (low) • Light fuels
• Open space: Henry Coe Range
• Rolling hills and less extreme grades
• Large lots and good separation
• Good defensible space around most homes,
some <100 feet
• Good access
• Maintained roads and plentiful turnaround
space
• Good signage
• Low fire occurrence
• Hydrants available but density is low
• Livestock evacuation concerns
• Gated properties could impede access to
emergency responders
• Mix of construction types; building construction
includes wood siding, wooden decks, and
fences that can act as fuses from vegetation to
homes.
• CVARs: farms, grazing, orchards, vineyards,
commercial property
• Some poorly rated roof materials
• Some homes >5 miles from organized fire
response
• Aboveground utilities

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
Lexington Hills
(Chemeketa Park,
Aldercroft Heights,
Redwood Estates,
Summit Road, Call of
the Wild Road, Call of
the Wild Estates
Gillette Drive)
Chemeketa Park
(131, Extreme),
Aldercroft Heights
(116, Extreme),
Redwood Estates
(93, High), Summit
Road (88, High),
Call of the Wild
(High)
• Due to variation between communities, readers
are advised to see Annex 1 Chapter 1 for subcommunity info • Due to variation between communities, readers
are advised to see Annex 1- Chapter 1 for subcommunity info. Common hazards that occur across all sub communities include:
• Poor ingress/egress- only 1 way in and out for
many communities
• Steep topography
• Combustible roofing construction
• Limited setback from slope
• Poor fire access- narrow driveways and limited
turnaround
• Narrow road width
• Combustible siding and deck
• Limited water supply
• Limited defensible space
Los Altos Hills 90 (High) • Los Altos Hills County Fire District jurisdiction • Good separation of adjacent structures, larger
lot sizes
• New construction, 7A compliant
• Hydrants in most but not all areas
• Surfaced roads primarily
• Limited recent fire history
• Open space areas could serve as shelter-inplace in event of evacuation • Heavy concentration of eucalyptus trees—
treatment program available
• >30 feet of defensible space around most
homes, but <100 feet around many
• Some areas have poor yard hygiene
• Mix of construction types; building construction
includes wood siding, wooden decks, and
fences that can act as fuses from vegetation to
homes.
• Single-lane, narrow roads in some areas
• Some private roads with poor road maintenance
and limited turnaround for fire apparatuses
• Narrow gates
• Many old structures with wood shake
roofs/siding
• Heavy fuel loading adjacent to homes as a
result of thick underbrush and continuity of tree
crowns.
• CVARs: farm, retirement homes, open space
areas, community horse barn

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
Los Gatos 87 (high) • Many newer 7A-compliant homes
• Good signposting, though some non-reflective
• <5 miles from fire response
• Good yard hygiene for most homes, landscaped
yards
• Many larger lots with good separation between
structures
• Number of open space areas to break continuity
• Good visible house markers
• Reasonable water supply via hydrants but low
pressure in some areas
• HOAs for some subdivisions that can facilitate
community organizing
• Lots of new development
• CVARs: wineries, retirement homes, Sacred
Heart Novitiate
• Very narrow, steep, and windy roads and
driveways
• No turnaround on many roads and driveways
• Heavy fuel loading adjacent to homes as a
result of thick underbrush and continuity of tree
crowns
• Topographic concerns, steep grades
• Poor roof materials, some wood shake
• >30 feet of defensible space around most
homes, but <100 feet around many
• Mix of construction types; building construction
includes wood siding, wooden decks, and
fences that can act as fuses from vegetation to
homes
• Narrow or no staging area for apparatuses,
would block evacuation routes
• Many dead-end spurs

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
Monte Sereno 70 (High) • New construction, 7A compliant • Property owners have implemented some
defensible space work and fuel reduction
• Good access on lower slopes
• Good proximity to emergency responders
• Well-maintained, surfaced roads
• Irrigated lawns and landscaping
• Reasonable roofing construction
• Under Santa Clara County Fire Department
jurisdiction
• One way in and out
• Long windy road with steep grade
• Confusing road layout
• Limited turnaround space for fire access and/or
narrow driveways
• Heavy fuel loading adjacent to homes as a
result of thick underbrush and continuity of tree
crowns
• Reasonable water supply via hydrants in lower
elevation areas, but hydrants needed at higher
elevations
• Encourage water tanks outside of urban service
area
• Building construction includes wood siding,
wooden decks, and fences that can act as fuses
from vegetation to homes.
• Some homes have limited setback from slope
• >30 feet of defensible space around most
homes, but <100 feet around many

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
Morgan Hill 79 (High) • Firewise sign
• Active community in Santa Clara County
FireSafe Council
• Council and fire prevention activities
• Open space areas break continuity and active
fuel programs
• Surfaced and maintained roads
• Mostly good yard hygiene and maintenance of
property
• Morgan Hills City Water hydrant system
• Good signage, some non-reflective
• Weed abatement projects in effect
• HOA assists with community organizing
• Majority belowground utilities
• Dry flammable vegetation type adjacent to
homes and below homes on slopes
• Popular with visitors, potential large numbers
during summer months
• One road in and out, evacuation concerns
• Narrow roads within residential areas may have
limited turnaround space
• Small lots, limited separation between
structures
• Some steep driveways
• Some dead-end spurs
• Some wood shake roofs
• One Engine Company close, but other
resources are at some distance
• Topographic concerns— significant slope and
limited setback for many homes
• Single access subdivisions
• >30 feet of defensible space around most
homes, but <100 feet around many due to small
lots
• Mix of construction types; building construction
includes wood siding, wooden decks, and
fences that can act as fuses from vegetation to
homes

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
Mt. Hamilton-San
Antonne Valley
84 (High) • Light adjacent fuels
• Good separation between adjacent structures
• Narrow road width
• Two roads in and out, but access still a concern
• Surfaced road with greater than 5% grade
• Poor fire access, dead end spurs, lack
turnaround
• Street signs are present, some are nonreflective
• Defensible space: >70 feet to < 100 feet around
structure
• High concern topography
• Severe fire weather potential
• History of fire occurrence
• Building not set back >30 feet to slope
• Response: Station >5 miles from structure
• No internal sprinklers within construction
• Aboveground utilities

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
New Almaden 79 (High) • One road in and out
• Surfaced roads
• Street signs are present, some are nonreflective
• Water available
• Response: Station <5 miles from structure
• Narrow road width
• Poor fire access, dead end spurs, lack
turnaround
• Adjacent fuels: Moderate with high flammability
• Defensible space: >30 feet and < 70 feet around
structure
• Topography within 300 feet of structure: 41%
• High concern topographic features
• Moderate history of high fire occurrence
• Moderate severe fire weather potential
• Poor separation of adjacent structures
• Roofing assembly Unrated flammable and
Class B
• Combustible siding, combustible deck
• Building set back <30 feet to slope
• Internal sprinklers: for new build properties
• Utilities: Both above ground

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
Palo Alto 95 (High) • Surfaced roads and adequate width and turnaround
• Low slope in most areas, some steep sections
• Adjacent wildland to west and north are
grasslands managed every year by the City of
Palo Alto
• Mixed construction: stucco and wood
• Large lot size reducing adjacency issues
• Adequate water supply via hydrants
• Organized HOA to deliver strong safety
message and take action
• Good visible house markers
• Well signposted
• Irrigated lawns and landscaping
• New construction, 7A compliant
• Most homes have Class A roofs
• Community that is active in Santa Clara County
• FireSafe Council
• Landscaping concerns due to density of thick
junipers and pines in close proximity to homes
• Wildlands to the south are heavy untreated
brush
• Aboveground power lines
• Homes old enough that there is no requirement
for interior sprinklers
• Older homes with single paned windows prone
to breaking in wildfire
• Presence of some wood shake roofs put homes
and neighborhoods at risk

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
Saratoga Hills 90 (High) • County fire water resources are good except for any Lexington Hills commuters
• Surfaced road with greater than 5% grade
• Low fire weather potential
• Low fire occurrence history
• Large building lots with good separation
• Coyote brush has encroached on savannas
• Two or more roads in and out but access still a
concern
• Narrow road width
• Poor fire access, dead-end road spurs, lack of
turnaround
• Street signs are present, some non-reflective
• Defensible space: >30 feet to <70 feet around
structure
• Adjacent fuels: Medium
• Defensible space: >30 feet to <70 feet around
structure
• High-concern topography
• Non-combustible siding/combustible deck
• Building set back <30 feet to slope
• Water: available via hydrants, some pressure
issues
• Response: Station >5 miles from structure
• Internal sprinklers: some new homes
(7A compliant)
• Utilities - One aboveground, one belowground

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
Stanford 58 (Moderate) • Adjacent fuels are light
• Surfaced roads and adequate width and
turnaround
• Low slope in most areas, some steep sections
• Adjacent wildland to west and north are
grasslands managed every year by the City of
Palo Alto
• Mixed construction: stucco and wood
• Large lot size reducing adjacency issues
• Adequate water supply via hydrants
• Organized HOA to deliver strong safety
message and take action
• Good visible house markers
• Well signposted
• Irrigated lawns and landscaping
• New construction, 7A compliant
• Most homes have Class A roofs
• >30 feet of defensible space around most
homes, but <100 feet around man.
• Landscaping has some junipers and pines but
lower levels than adjacent Palo Alto
• Aboveground power lines
• Homes old enough that there is no requirement
for interior sprinklers
• Older homes with single-paned windows prone
to breaking in wildfire
• Presence of some wood shake roofs put homes
and neighborhoods at risk

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
Uvas Casa Loma 88 (High) • Good separation of structures • One road in and out • Narrow road width, poor fire access, dead-end
spurs, lack turnaround
• Unsurfaced road with greater than 5% grade
• Street signs are present, some are nonreflective
• Vegetation-adjacent fuels: Moderate with high
flammability
• Defensible space: >30 feet and <70 feet around
structure
• Defensible space: >30 feet and <70 feet around
structure
• Topography within 300 feet of structure: 41%
• Topographic features: High concern
• History of high fire occurrence: Moderate
• Severe fire weather potential: Moderate
• Building set back less than 30 feet from slope
• Response station >5 miles from structure
• Internal sprinklers: for new build properties only
• Utilities both aboveground

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Community Risk Rating Positives Negatives
West Gilroy 88 (High) • Good separation of adjacent structures • One road in and out, Redwood Retreat • Narrow road width
• Poor fire access, dead-end spurs, lack
turnaround
• Street signs are present, some are nonreflective
• Adjacent fuels: Moderate with high
flammability
• Defensible space: >30 feet and < 70 feet
around structure
• High concern topography surrounding
structures
• Moderate history of severe weather and fire
• Non-combustible siding, combustible deck
• Water unavailable
• Response: Station >5 miles from structure
• Internal sprinklers: only for new build properties
• Utilities both aboveground

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RISK-HAZARD ASSESSMENT

BACKGROUND
This CWPP update leverages the Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, and San Mateo Wildfire Risk to Structures (WRS) and Classified Wildfire Hazard (CWH) Maps for Fire Prevention Planning model and document developed by Tukman Geospatial LLC for the Santa Cruz Mountains Stewardship Network (scmsn.net), which is made up of 24 organizations in the Santa Cruz Mountains. This effort was funded by the California Climate Investments (CCI) and CAL FIRE (Fire Prevention Grant Program). This modeling effort was part of a larger effort to build fine-scale vegetation and landscape databases for each county in the San Francisco Bay Area. This chapter provides a high-level synthesis of a detailed multi-year project.

More detailed information is provided in Appendix D. See Maps 1–5 in Appendix J for fire behavior model outputs such as fireline intensity and rate of spread.

Wildfire Risk to Structures
The WRS map provides a spatially explicit ranking for 10-acre hexagons, assigning each hexagon with a ranking for wildfire hazard and a ranking for housing density. From a risk to structures perspective, hexagons with high housing density and high wildfire hazard are of greatest concern. This layer integrates risk into the CWPP (Figure 3.6).

Classified Wildfire Hazard
In addition to the WRS polygon layer, a second project deliverable is the 6-class, 20-meter CWH raster.

This layer integrates hazard into the CWPP.

Both the WRS and the CWH data layers are different than the 2007 adopted CAL FIRE FHSZs (Figure

3.1), as well as the 2023 released draft of those zones. While the WRS and CWH used similar processes, the data sets used to develop each were different than the underlying data sets used to develop CAL FIRE’s FHSZs.

The WRS and CWH were completed in 2023 and provided for public access.

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Figure 3.1. CAL FIRE FHSZs across Santa Clara County.

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TECHNICAL APPROACH
The WRS and CWH were derived using fire history, vegetation, predicted flame length, ember production, topography, and climate. Figure 3.2. shows each input used, the weight it was assigned, and its source.

The Tukman model uses finer-scale data than previous CWPP assessments and the CAL FIRE FHSZs, utilizing 5-meter pixels as opposed to 30-meter resolution. The assessment also integrates weather data specifically derived for the San Francisco Bay area.

Some key features outlined in Figure 3.2. include:
• Wildfire potential was derived by combining five data layers: predicted flame length, extreme fire weather potential, predicted ember load, suppression difficulty, and proximity to wildland veg (referred to as ‘Dense Urban without Wildland Veg’). These data layers were derived at varying resolution and scale and resampled to a common resolution of 20 meters. • Wildfire probability was derived from 5 data layers: human development proximity, transmission line proximity, distribution line proximity (transmission and distribution lines were treated separately because fire starts from distribution lines are more common than from transmission lines), and historic ignitions.

Together, the wildfire potential and wildfire probability make up the CWH. This is a 20-meter resolution data set that indicates where a severe fire is likely to occur.

Figure 3.2. Schematic of data inputs used to derive both the WRS and CWH layers (Tukman 2022).

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To this final layer structure, density was added to create the WRS. It is important to note that the only values added to this model were structures. Stakeholders and community members understand that there are many other values to consider for protection of wildfire hazard. The Tukman model is intended to be used in conjunction with individual highly valued resources and assets (HVRAs).

Technical Resources
• Rasters/Polygons/Landscape files available for download are here: https://pacificvegmap.org/ • The report document detailing the Risk-Hazard Assessment development is here:
https://fuelsmapping.com/3county_risk_report as well as in Appendix D. • The web application to peruse the results is here: https://fuelsmapping.com/sc_sc_sm_risk_map • Recording to detailed presentation regarding the Risk-Hazard Assessment can be found here:
o Video link: https://fuelsmapping.com/scu_workshop5_video o Slide link: https://fuelsmappingcom/scu_workshop5_slides

MODEL INPUTS
Figure 3.3. Model inputs for the Tukman model.

Predicted flame length is the heaviest weighted layer in the model and is based on fuel model classification for the area. Fuel models were assigned based on vegetation type, percent canopy cover, and ladder fuel ratio, as well as other factors such as grazing. Flame length was predicted by using FlamMap.

Suppression difficulty is an index developed for the entire United States by researchers from the national Wildfire Risk Management Science Team. The suppression difficulty index is a 30-meter resolution data set that takes into consideration many of the factors already described, along with firefighter line production rates in various fuel types and distance from roads and trails.

Extreme fire weather potential is a unique data product developed specifically for this effort. It uses a fire spread index that was calculated from relative humidity and wind speed. The maximum daily fire spread index values were calculated for each pixel in a 1.5-kilometer countywide raster for each day of Flame Length x4
Extreme Fire
Weather
Potential x2
Ember Load x2 Suppression
Difficulty x3
Dense Urban
without Veg x2
Human
Development
Proximity
Transmission
Proximity x1.5
Distribution
Proximity x2
Historic
Ignitions x0.5

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September and October in 2017, 2019, and 2020. For each pixel, the 97th percentile index value was found for those 180 days.

MODEL OUTPUTS
Figure 3.4. Model outputs for the Tukman model.

The main outputs of the model are the resulting CWH layer and, once structure density was added, the WRS layer. These two layers are the result of the model and have been adopted in the Santa Clara CWPP to be used to help prioritize fuel mitigation projects and identify areas of concern for prioritizing projects.

The resulting CWH and WRS layers are presented in Figures 3.5. and 3.6. More information about the methodology is provided in Appendix D.

Classified
Wildfire Hazard
(CWH)
Structure
Density (WUI)
Wildfire Risk to
Structures
(WRS)

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Figure 3.5. Classified wildfire hazard within Santa Clara County.

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Figure 3.6. Wildfire risk to structures within Santa Clara County.

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AREAS OF CONCERN
The WRS layer can be used to identify the highest ranked areas within the county. The Tukman team identified those hexagons that had the highest structural density and the highest fire hazard. Thirteen hexagons were identified. Of those, all had a wildfire hazard rating of 5, or very high, and all had a structural density class of 6 (more than 3 structures per acre). Although the selected hexagons had a relatively high number of structures, they were, by far, not in densely urban areas, as expected, and they were not rated the highest hazard since the greatest hazards occurred in areas with no structures.

Table 3.2 lists each location along with its hazard scores and structure classification. This information was used during Planning Team meetings to identify area of concern polygons at a county scale but can also be utilized by annex holders within these jurisdictions to develop priority treatment areas for reducing structure risk. Please see Figure ES.1 or Figure 4.2 to view areas of concern.

Classified Wildfire Hazard
Each of the nine input spatial data sets related to hazard was scaled from 0 to 4 (for example, very short flame lengths would be assigned a 0 for flame length and very tall flame lengths would be assigned a 4).

The classified relative wildfire hazard was calculated by weighting the inputs and adding up the weighted values. Flame length was assigned a weight of 4, extreme fire weather potential and ember load index were assigned weights of 2, suppression difficulty was assigned a weight of 3, wildland vegetation was assigned a weight of 2, human development proximity was assigned a weight of 1, transmission proximity a weight of 1.5, distribution proximity a weight of 2, and historic ignitions 0.5. To synthesize these nine hazard spatial data sets, first the variable’s class (0–4) for a given pixel is multiplied by that variable’s weight to produce a raw score for each variable. The highest possible index value was 72.

After computing raw hazard, with possible pixel values from 0 to 72 for each pixel, pixels were ‘binned’ into six hazard classes, 1 through 6, with 1 representing the areas of lowest relative hazard and 6 representing the areas of highest relative hazard. The relative hazard was classified using the following steps:
• Class 1 was automatically assigned to pixels that were mapped as water or salt marsh in the enhanced lifeform map or had a non-burnable (NB) fuel model in the 2020 Scott and Burgan Surface Fuel Model.
• 2 was assigned to the lowest quintile, 3 to the second, 4 to the third, 5 to the fourth, and 6 to the highest quintile. Classes 2 through 6 have a roughly equal number of pixels within each.

The classification was adjusted to account for distinct differences in fire weather, topography, vegetation, and land use observed by experts when comparing results for the Santa Cruz Mountains ecoregion (west of Highway 101) versus the Mt. Hamilton/Diablo Range ecoregion (east of Highway 101).

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Table 3.2. Polygons Exhibiting High Hazard and High Structure Classification Hex ID Nearest Road Description Initial Assessment Structures Within Classified
Neighborhood
Hazard Class Total Score Symbology
12067 Heritage Way Mobile Home Park Investigate further 6 5 11 Very High Hazard, ≥3 Structures per Acre
12599 Watsonville Rd Mobile Home Park Investigate further 6 5 11 Very High Hazard, ≥3 Structures per Acre
12865 Uvas Rd Mobile Home Park Investigate further 6 5 11 Very High Hazard, ≥3 Structures per Acre
27781 Mountain View Ct Redwood Estates Investigate further 6 5 11 Very High Hazard, ≥3 Structures per Acre
28888 Aldercroft Hts Rd Aldercroft Heights Investigate further 6 5 11 Very High Hazard, ≥3 Structures per Acre
31834 Almaden Rd English Town Investigate further 6 5 11 Very High Hazard, ≥3 Structures per Acre
32520 Bertram Rd English Town Investigate further 6 5 11 Very High Hazard, ≥3 Structures per Acre
76027 Kahler Ct
(off Felter Rd)
Agricultural Mis-identified 6 5 11 Very High Hazard,
≥3 Structures per Acre
15371 Mount Madonna
Rd
County boundary Possible misidentification4 6 10 Highest Hazard, 1-1.9 Structures per Acre
15957 Cory Rd Uvas Canyon Investigate further 4 6 10 Highest Hazard, 1–1.9 Structures per Acre
25640 Mt Umunhum Rd Rural Mis-identified 4 6 10 Highest Hazard, 1–1.9 Structures per Acre
30725 Soda Springs Rd Ridgetop Investigate further 4 6 10 Highest Hazard, 1–1.9 Structures per Acre
32785 Soda Springs Rd Ridgetop Investigate further 4 6 10 Highest Hazard, 1–1.9 Structures per Acre

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Structure Density (WUI)
Structures were derived from the San Mateo (2018), Santa Cruz (2020, pre CZU Fire) and Santa Clara (2020, pre-CZU/SCU Fire) impervious surface maps. The structures in the three impervious surfaces map were derived from the ‘best available’ LIDAR data for the three counties. In addition, structure footprint data provided by Sanborn also derived from the best available LIDAR data were integrated into the impervious surface map for Santa Clara County. Though the structures used for this analysis are the ‘best available’ data to spatially represent structure on the landscape, they still contain false positives and false negatives (especially when structures are visibly obscured by tree canopy from an aerial perspective).

In addition, the structure footprints were derived from data collected before the 2020 lightning fires in the three-county area. As a result, they depict structures that have since burned down. The LIDAR-derived structures used in this analysis were qualitatively compared with Microsoft Building Footprints (derived from optical data) and were deemed superior in their accuracy, with less false positives and false negatives.

From the impervious surface maps, structure polygons were selected and combined, and structure centroids (points) were created. Then, for each 10-acre hexagon, they were classified by density.

The lower the number of structures within the 10-acre hexagon, the lower the density assigned to that hexagon.

It is important to note that structures were not classified by type (i.e., commercial buildings, agricultural buildings, and residential structures were all considered the same in the model). Instead, they were classified by density. The higher the density, the higher the class. However, by classifying the structures, we did not decide that one class is more valuable than another class. Rather than say a low-density area has a higher or lower risk to wildfire, each hexagon, with its assigned structure density class, was assigned a wildfire hazard rating based on the average wildfire hazard within that hexagon along with the average hazard within 1 mile of that hexagon.

This resulted in a layer that allows us to symbolize areas by both structure density and wildfire hazard.

Wildfire Risk to Structures
The 10-acre hexagon mesh that covers the county was then assigned an average CWH and structure density that fell within that 10-acre hexagon. The resulting layer is what is called the WRS. The layer can be symbolized to both show the CWH and structure density.

Important to note about this layer is that, regardless of structure density, areas with the highest wildfire hazard rating still show up. Also, we can see some clear patterns of where high structure density coincides with high wildfire hazard, highlighting areas that may be in need of fuel mitigation projects, if structures are the only value considered.

Using the CWH and WRS layers for the purposes stated above and in the Tukman report (Appendix D) does not make the CAL FIRE FHSZs obsolete. Rather, this Risk-Hazard Assessment provides an additional dataset that can be used to assess projects across the landscape.

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Figure 3.7. Screenshot of online version of the WRS layer (accessed January 2023).

Note: Those hexagons that received less than a moderate hazard rating are not shown on the map in Figure 3.7, but that can be adjusted should the layer be downloaded and viewed via a GIS platform.

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COLLABORATION
The WRS polygon map and the CWH 20-meter raster were developed in a collaborative partnership.

Tukman Geospatial served as the technical lead and was responsible for implementing the model design, python coding, and geospatial data analysis. Tukman Geospatial partnered with Digital Mapping Solutions (Esther Mandeno) and Wildland Res Mgt (Carol Rice) for technical oversight on the risk model design, its data inputs, and the weights used for the inputs. Drafts of the risk map were reviewed collaboratively by team members and stakeholders resulting in a final WRS map and CWH map, each of which went through 11 iterations.

Stakeholder input and community engagement was critical to the production of these data products. Five workshops were held throughout the course of the project to solicit input from land managers and the fire community. In addition to the workshops, the internal project team had numerous meetings with personnel from the CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit and San Mateo–Santa Cruz Unit, staff from CAL FIRE’s Fire and Resource Assessment Program (FRAP), land managers, and community-based wildfire groups in Santa Cruz and Santa Clara County to solicit focused input on specific geographies. Workshops and smaller meetings were catalysts for numerous improvements to the wildfire risk map over the course of its evolution.

MODEL APPLICATIONS
The WRS and CWH data products are designed for land managers and fire responders who are interested in relative rankings of wildfire risk and wildfire hazard. The risk and hazard map products are modeled outputs based on the best available data. As such, they provide an interpretation of risk and hazard that is based on a set of input variables and decision rules.

These data are meant to be used as reference datasets for fire prevention planning purposes.

Appropriate uses for the WRS dataset are to help to identify areas that have structures at risk from wildfire. This information can be used for prioritizing fuel reduction projects, for planning suppression activities, and for targeting areas for activities to increase ignition resistance of structures. The CWH raster can also be used to assess the risk to other values (such as evacuation routes, sensitive natural or cultural resources, and water storage/delivery infrastructure). 10 meetings were held
to gather stakeholder
input
Modified model based
on local and expert
input
Consulted with
statewide experts

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These maps and GIS products are screening level products created from remotely sensed data and modeling. On the ground knowledge and local expertise (where available) should take precedence over these data products for the detailed work of site-specific planning and implementation of fuel reduction projects.

VALUES AT RISK
Earlier compilation of the critical infrastructure in the planning area, coupled with the community assessments, public outreach, and Advisory Team input, has helped in the development of a list of HVRAs at risk from wildland fire. These data are also supplemented with a nationwide data set of HVRA available through several platforms, including the Interagency Fuel Treatment Decision Support System (IFTDSS). The public was encouraged to provide input on their own valued resources during the initial public outreach periods for development of the 2016 CWPP and again in 2022/2023. Based on feedback provided, this section and the associated mapping was revised.

HVRAs can include natural, social, and cultural resources (mapped below) and critical infrastructure (see Map 6 in Appendix J). More detailed descriptions of VARs are included in the Location and Geography section of Appendix B. It is important to note that although an identification of HVRAs can inform treatment recommendations, a number of factors must be considered in order to fully prioritize areas for treatment; these factors include appropriateness of treatment, land ownership constraints, locations of ongoing projects, available resources, and other physical, social, or ecological barriers to treatment.

The scope of this CWPP does not allow determination of the absolute natural, socioeconomic, and cultural values that could be impacted by wildfire in the planning area. In terms of socioeconomic values, the impact due to wildfire would cross many scales and sectors of the economy and call upon resources locally, regionally, and nationally.

The WRS data layer considered only wildfire risk to structures; therefore, to supplement identification of areas of concern across the county, the following intersects of hazard (CWH) with critical habitat, cultural resources, critical infrastructure, and open space lands were completed for the county (Figures 3.8–3.11).

These maps can be used to prioritize mitigation on a county scale for the protection of these HVRAs and can also be used by annex holders to prioritize treatments at an annex/jurisdictional scale.

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Figure 3.8. Intersect of critical habitat with CWH.

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Figure 3.9. Intersect of cultural VARs with CWH.

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Figure 3.10. Intersect of critical infrastructure with CWH.

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Figure 3.11. Intersect of open space lands with CWH.

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NATURAL VALUES AT RISK
The CWPP planning area and the adjacent county parks in the Santa Cruz Mountains and Diablo Range offer a variety of natural resources of particular concern to land managers, such as rare habitats and listed plant and wildlife species. Sensitive species habitat can be damaged or destroyed and potentially overrun with invasive species. Watersheds are a critical resource and wildfire can cause significant erosion and loss of water quality. Several percolation ponds and reservoirs are located throughout the Santa Clara Valley. “Percolation ponds help replenish local groundwater, which supports about 40% of the water used in Santa Clara County” (Santa Clara Valley Water News 2023). Additionally, reservoirs are an important resource for irrigating agricultural crops and flood control. Sedimentation in surface water, as a result of erosion following severe wildfire, can negatively impact percolation ponds and reservoirs.

Public outreach throughout the county has emphasized the importance of protecting natural/ecological values to the general public (Figure 3.13). Examples of natural values identified by the public and the Planning Team include the following:
• Public land (e.g., Upper Stevens Creek,
Henry Coe State Park)
• Trail systems (e.g., Coyote Creek trail)
• Agricultural land
• Scenic viewsheds
• Wildlife habitat and sensitive species
• Watersheds and preservation of water
quality for Santa Clara County
• Percolation ponds
• Reservoirs
Figure 3.12. Example of a natural VAR, a scenic viewshed.

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Figure 3.13. Map of natural VARs across Santa Clara County.

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SOCIOECONOMIC VALUES AT RISK
The technology industry has grown into a massive job-creating and revenue-generating sector of the state, national, and global economy. Most of what is considered to be Silicon Valley, the coined nickname for the hub of the technology industry, is located within Santa Clara County (California Employment Development Department 2016). Among the major tech companies operating out of Santa Clara County are hardware manufacturers AMD, Cisco Systems, and Intel; computer and consumer electronics companies Apple Inc. and Hewlett-Packard; and internet companies eBay, Facebook, Google, and Yahoo. Many employees of these large tech-based companies choose to locate their homes in the Santa Clara foothills. This has an impact to the WUI due to increased construction pressures, VARs in the wildland areas, and unique concerns such as gated entrances and vegetated landscaping and screening.

The economic loss stemming from wildfire catastrophe can be enormous as tourism and recreational sites and access are impacted. Social sense of well-being is affected by concern of impact of WUI fires in neighborhoods. Smoke can cause significant safety and health issues, with many sensitive individuals requiring medical treatment. Please see Appendix G for resources regarding wildfire smoke.

Social values include population, recreation, infrastructure, and the built environment (Figure 3.14).

Examples include the following:
• Business centers (office buildings)
(e.g., Silicon Valley)
• Communications infrastructure (e.g., cell
phone and radio towers)
• Tourism values (e.g., restaurants,
recreation facilities)
• Schools
• Public safety infrastructure
• Highways
• Churches
• Care homes, senior housing, day care, and
other group homes
• Water storage and water infrastructure
• Recreation sites (e.g., golf courses, lakes
and ponds, trails, parks)

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Figure 3.14. Socioeconomic VARs across Santa Clara County.

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CULTURAL VALUES AT RISK
There are 119 properties and districts listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Santa Clara County, including five National Historic Landmarks (National Register of Historic Places 2023). Many of these sites are located in the urban areas of the county, but some are located within the WUI. Particular cultural VARs that have been identified by the Planning Team and the public in the CWPP planning area are the following:
• Paul Masson Mountain Winery
• Picchetti Brothers winery
• Villa Montalvo in Saratoga
• The Lick Observatory
• Fire towers
• Libraries
• Churches
Figure 3.15. Example of a cultural VAR, the Lick Observatory

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Figure 3.16. Example of a cultural VAR, view from the historic fire tower on Mount Hamilton.

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Figure 3.17. Cultural VARs across Santa Clara County.

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CHAPTER 4 – MITIGATION

STRATEGIES
This chapter provides project recommendations and implementation guidance; however, mitigation does not stop there. In addition to the recommendations, recognizing wildfire mitigation, preparedness, and resilience means being prepared both pre- and post-fire. Post-fire response and rehabilitation information can be found at the end of this chapter.

This plan has been aligned with the Cohesive Strategy and its Phase III Western Regional Action Plan by adhering to the nationwide goal:
“To safely and effectively extinguish fire, when needed; use fire where allowable; manage our natural resources; and as a Nation, live with wildland fire.” (Forests and Rangelands 2014:3).

Thus, CWPP recommendations have been structured around the three main goals of the Cohesive Strategy: restoring and maintaining landscapes, fire-adapted communities, and wildfire response. Many of the recommendations listed below can be implemented at the property owner or community level.

Projects requiring large-scale support can be prioritized based on the Risk-Hazard Assessment.

Recommendation matrixes are used throughout this chapter to serve as an action plan for implementation. Recommendations have been aligned with the strategies in the 2021 California’s Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan (California Forest Management Task Force 2021) wherever possible.

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GOAL 1: RESTORE AND MAINTAIN

LANDSCAPES
In this CWPP, recommendations to restore and maintain landscapes focus on vegetation management and hazardous fuel reduction.

It has become increasingly apparent that mitigating wildfire risk requires much more than a simple reliance on suppression response. Thoughtful planning, conducted as a collaborative effort by the many people and organizations affected by wildfire, is required to develop and implement short- and long-term solutions and strategies. The CWPP process is a means by which many individuals and organizations can plan together in a structured format.

This region has been home to an active and committed fuel treatment program by land managers for many years. Figure 4.1 shows existing fuel treatments that have been completed or planned in and around the planning area. This information is derived from Cal Mapper, CAL FIRE, as well as County Fire Departments, County Parks, and Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District (Midpen). The Advisory Team also contributed and confirmed data sources. The FireSafe Council, County Fire, Midpen, County Parks, San Jose Water, Valley Water, and other land managers and agencies throughout the county have been involved in many large fuel treatment projects throughout the County.

The treatment momentum already observed surrounding the planning area should be built upon in order to increase fuel treatment effectiveness across the landscape.

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Figure 4.1. Past fuel treatments and types across Santa Clara County.

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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HAZARDOUS FUEL REDUCTION
The purpose of any fuel reduction treatment is to protect life and property by reducing the potential for and outcome of catastrophic wildfire, and to restore landscapes to a sustainable and healthy condition.

Moderating extreme fire behavior, reducing structural ignitability, creating defensible space, providing safe evacuation routes, and maintaining all roads for firefighting access are methods of fuels reduction likely to be used around communities located in a WUI zone. Use of multiple treatment methods often magnifies the benefits.

Santa Clara County has a very strong team of career and volunteer firefighters, who work arduously and cooperatively to protect the life and property of the citizens, but these resources can be severely stretched if property owners do not take on some of the responsibility of reducing fire hazards in and around their own homes and business properties. Without reduction of fire hazards by property owners before a fire occurs, it may be impossible for firefighters to safely defend structures when wildfire threatens an area. Public entities are limited in their ability to conduct fuel reduction on private properties and therefore cooperation by property owners as well as community awareness, public education, cross boundary agency collaboration, and fuel treatments on adjacent public lands are necessary to fully reduce wildfire risk.

CWPPs provide stakeholders not only the opportunity to identify fuel reduction projects but also to assign priorities to them. While it is true that communities with an established CWPP are given priority for federal funding of hazardous fuels reduction projects carried out in accordance with the HFRA, a collaboratively developed list of such projects is simply more efficient in terms of planning, funding, and execution given the large amount of fuels reduction that could be done across Santa Clara County. A list and detailed descriptions of fuels treatment types and methods, including defensible space practices and larger-scale projects, is housed in Appendix F.

Fuels Management
Fuels management of public and private land in the WUI is key to the survival of homes during a wildfire event, as well as the means to meet the criteria of Goal 1. Research has shown how fuel treatments in the WUI can change fire behavior to support suppression activities and protect homes (Evans et al. 2015).

Fuels should be modified with a strategic approach to reduce the threat that high-intensity wildfires pose to lives, property, and other values. This section provides information on fuel treatment methodologies that can be applied to first protect structures (defensible space), then near community boundaries (fuel breaks, cleanup of adjacent open spaces), and finally in the wildlands beyond community boundaries (larger-scale forest health and restoration treatments). The emphasis of each of these treatment types is unique. Proximate to structures, the recommendations focus on reducing fire intensity consistent with Firewise and International Fire Code standards. Further into open space areas, treatments tend to emphasize forest health and increasing resiliency to catastrophic wildfire and other disturbances.

There are many approaches to reducing fuels in the wildland setting. Traditional methods include utilizing people and machines to mechanically remove vegetation as determined by a management prescription.

Engaging local tribal entities in land management decisions is a valuable way to integrate Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) into the promotion and maintenance of resilient landscapes. For example, cultural and prescribed burning, is often the best way to maintain natural vegetation composition and fuel loading in fire adapted landscapes. However, in some areas, for example the WUI, these methods may be too risky, expensive, and difficult to implement. Knowing this, land management agencies are

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beginning to incorporate the use of prescribed herbivory (intentional use of domestic livestock to remove, rearrange, or convert vegetation on wildlands to reduce hazardous fuels) for fuel reduction projects.

The California Vegetation Treatment Program (CalVTP) in conjunction with the Range Management Advisory Committee (RMAC) are working to implement prescribed herbivory on fuel reduction projects across the state. Benefits of prescribed herbivory include better air quality, less noise, ability to be utilized close to structures and on steep slopes, and reduced soil compaction. Limitations include timing constraints on treatment implementation regarding vegetation maturity and seasonal variations, treatment of 1-hour and 10-hour fuels only, and the possibility of herbivores girdling certain tree species (California Board of Forestry & Fire Protection [BOF] 2015).

The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) has a robust roadside vegetation control program that reduces the risk of wildfire and “increases safety for motorists, cyclists and pedestrians” (Caltrans 2023). To control vegetation, Caltrans implements a plan called the Integrated Vegetation Management Plan composed of assorted methods for keeping vegetation in check, including herbicide spraying, mowing, weed whacking, hand removal. See Chapter 4 to explore areas of concern and find out more about the Integrated Vegetation Management Plan here: https://dot.ca.gov/caltrans-near-me/district-4/d4- projects/roadside-vegetation-control.

Various land management strategies implemented by local, county, state, and federal partners in the County are discussed in more detail in the Land Management Strategies section of Appendix A.

Recommended Treatments
Table 4.1 summarizes the types of treatments recommended throughout the planning area. Most treatments are focused on higher risk areas, as defined by the Risk-Hazard Assessment and Planning Team input. Many of these treatment recommendations are general across the communities because similar conditions occur in those areas. Tables 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3 also address the requirement for an action plan and assessment strategy by providing monitoring guidelines and a timeline for implementation. This timeline is obviously dependent on available funding and resources, as well as the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) protocols for any treatments pursued on public land. See Figure 4.3 to view the CEQA process for CalVTP implementation.

In addition, areas of concern (Figure 4.2) have been delineated based on the Risk-Hazard Assessment and Planning Team input. Areas of concern include regions with high concentrations of HVRAs that coincide with high potential exposure to wildfire (see Figure 3.5) and/or areas where land management agencies have ongoing vegetation management treatments that could be enhanced by adjacent projects.

These are areas where land managers should consider employing mitigation measures to protect life, property, and other values. It is recommended that treatment plans be developed to execute mitigation measures in these areas. Treatment types will be site specific but should address a need to slow fire spread or mitigate potential extreme fire behavior parameters, such as high flame lengths or fireline intensity.

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Figure 4.2. Planning Team–delineated areas of concern.

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Table 4.1. Recommendations to Create Resilient Landscapes (Fuel Treatments) Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline
for Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources RL1 M 2023-2033 Continue to align the CWPP,
MJHMP, and General Plan
Safety Element updates and
revisions to build consistency
and leverage funding
opportunities for hazardous fuel
treatments.

Countywide Santa Clara County
OES
Build and retain partnerships between agencies and decisionmaking bodies across the county to develop solutions that mitigate the risks of common hazards faced by the entire County
• Assess values at risk
• Build upon existing hazard mitigation planning from
other agencies
• Use story map and project tracking tool to increase
accessibility and public awareness
• Utilize the established CWPP Management Team
to foster collaboration
Protect life by identifying hazards
and reducing associated risks
Protect public and first responder
life and safety
Updates to materials as needed
Convene Management Team on
an annual basis
Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress
• FEMA BRIC Grants
• EMPG
• RCP
• Firewise grants National
Urban and Community Forest
Program
• FP&S (FEMA)
• California Fire Safe Council
Grants
• NFPA Firewise Grants
RL2 H Ongoing Install strategic fuel breaks and
fuel reduction areas throughout
the county based on findings of
the Risk-Hazard Assessment.

Open Space
Authority, Midpen,
State Parks, County
Parks, Palo Alto
Parks, San Jose
Parks, and other
public lands that
bound up to the WUI.

Consider Assembly
Bill 2911
Prioritize treatment in
areas of concern
(Figure ES.1, Figure

4.2), and specifically
adjacent to areas
classified as ‘extreme
risk to structures’ in
the Risk-Hazard
Assessment
County, private
landowners (private
roads), state and
federal agencies
Install fuel breaks in high-risk areas and prioritize
underserved and rural areas. Potential fuel break locations include:
• Buffer roads, natural fuel breaks (rivers, creeks,
and ridgelines), and designated rights-of-way to
increase fuel break effectiveness. Areas that
support the protection of the WUI
• Valley floors, where grasslands meet or intermingle
with communities
• Around communities surrounded with rolling hills
and grasslands
• Communities surrounded by steep topography and
heavy fuel loading
• Around critical facilities and infrastructure
(e.g., communications)
• Aim for 300-foot shaded fuel breaks around
communities
• Implement and maintain shaded fuel breaks and
reduce ladder fuels and greenbelts
• Perform roadside fuels treatments to maximize
effectiveness of roadways as fuel breaks and
reduce wildfire behavior along major ingress and
egress routes.
• Fuel breaks should be designed according to sitespecific conditions • Potential methods include prescribed burning,
grazing, and mechanical
Implement a maintenance program for the Highway 17
shaded fuel break.

Protect life and property by
reducing the spread of high
severity wildfire and improving
access for emergency vehicles.

Regular maintenance schedule
should be implemented to ensure
clearance levels are maintained
and remain effective.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• USFS CWDG Grants
• CAL FIRE Grant Programs
• FEMA BRIC Grants
• California Fire Safe Council
Grants
• NFPA Firewise Grants

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Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline
for Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources RL3 H Ongoing Evaluate existing native surface
(unpaved) fire roads for use as
fuel breaks/fuel reduction areas
as appropriate
Open Space
Authority, Midpen,
State Parks, County
Parks, Palo Alto
Parks, San Jose
Parks, and other
municipal parks that
bound up to the WUI.

Consider Assembly
Bill 2911
Depends on
jurisdiction/
easement
Identify existing gaps in fuel breaks or large-scale treatments meant for connectivity and implement and determine most effective treatment methods
• Consider road type and ownership
• Fire dept with jurisdiction/easement access would
evaluate road condition and suitability
• Maintenance would be assigned based on
jurisdiction.
• Implement maintenance - road/trail width for fire
and park patrol vehicles where possible
• Refer to RL1 for other fuel break considerations.
• Consider bridge access, ratings and maintenance
Protect life and property by
improving access for emergency
vehicles to open space areas and
WUI areas adjacent to open
space.

Regular maintenance schedule
should be implemented to ensure
clearance levels are maintained
and remain effective.

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Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline
for Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources RL4 M Ongoing Identify continued prescribed
herbivory in open spaces,
targeting grasses and light fuels
throughout the Unit.

County-wide
Following assessment
of feasibility, prioritize
treatment in areas of
concern (Figure
ES.1), and specifically
adjacent to areas
classified as ‘high and
extreme risk to
structures’ in the riskhazard assessment
County Parks,
Miidpen, Open
Space Authority,
State Parks, water
company/district
properties,
Cattleman’s
association,
ranching
community, private
landowners
Utilize prescribed herbivory as fuel reduction and
maintenance technique, especially adjacent to WUI areas. • Work with Santa Clara Cattleman’s Association to
develop a regional grazing plan.
• Implement grazing plans to eliminate dry grass and
remove weeds and/or establish irrigation to regreen
the parcel.
• Employ grazing as a solution for treating areas of
high concern topography that would be unsafe for
hand treatment
• Work with RCDs to investigate locations where
grazing would be most effective
Collaborate with California Department of Fish and Wildlife for beaver conservation and population/habitat restoration efforts that could provide benefits for forest health/hazardous fuels reduction
• Conduct a comprehensive assessment of existing
beaver populations and study benefit to forest
resilience
• Secure funding and resources through
partnerships, grants, and fundraising initiatives to
support beaver conservation and habitat restoration
projects
• Develop and implement a monitoring program to
track the population dynamics, behavior, and
habitat conditions
Establish communication and collaboration with the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) or CalTrans to
initiate discussions on the potential for expanding the elk population in targeted regions with a view to provided benefit for forest and grassland resilience.
• Conduct an assessment of suitable habitat areas
• Collaborate with CDFW to develop a
comprehensive elk management plan
• Coordinate with CalTrans to identify potential areas
for wildlife crossings through transportation
corridors
• Assess need for habitat restoration and long-term
monitoring program
Reduce fuel loading of fine fuels
that could increase wildfire spread
to WUI areas.

Regular monitoring needed to
ensure against environmental
damage and invasive species
Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• SRA
• CA Fire Safe Council
• CFIP
• NRCS
• FEMA
• GHGRF

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Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline
for Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources RL5 H Ongoing Encourage use of intentional fire
(i.e. – broadcast burning, pile
burning, cultural burning,
biochar and carbonator) where
ecologically sound and feasible
County-wide
Following an
assessment of
feasibility, prioritize
treatments in areas of
concern (Figure
ES.1), and specifically
in locations where
treatment would
alleviate ‘high and
extreme risk to
structures’ in the riskhazard assessment,
and would provide
positive impacts to
watershed and
ecological health
All jurisdictions
where appropriate
Tribes
Federal agencies,

CAL FIRE
Utilize prescribed burn planning that follows agency and regulator protocols.
• Engage with tribal entities to promote the use of
cultural burning when appropriate and feasible.
• Train personnel to be NWCG-certified burn bosses
(RXB2).
• Reach out to surrounding fire agencies to
collaborate on prescribed burns. This will improve
the capacity to accomplish many/large acreage
burns.

Assess opportunities to use prescribed fire for restoration (e.g., oak woodlands) to increase wildfire resiliency.

Reduce fuel loading of fine fuels
and understory species to mitigate
potential for intense fire behavior in
the event of an unplanned ignition.

Increase capacity and training for
fire departments.

Promote healthy successional
vegetation
Provide habitat for fire-adapted
species.

Regular monitoring needed to
ensure against environmental
damage and invasive species into
burned areas.

Establish annual goals and
objectives for prescribed burning
operations.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• CAL FIRE VMP program
• SRA
• CA Fire Safe Council
• CFIP
• NRCS
• GSA Federal Excess
Personal Property (FEPP)
• Firewise Grants
• BRIC
• RCP
• Fire Prevention and Safety
(FP&S) Grants (FEMA)
• Community Wildfire Defense
Grants (CWDG)
• National Urban and
Community Forestry
Challenge Cost Share Grant
Program
• U.S. Endowment for Forestry
and Communities
RL6 H Develop roadside fuel treatment
program (paved public roads),
including suite of methods
available and sustainability
mechanism.

County Wide
Prioritize treatment in
areas of concern
(Figure ES.1), and
specifically adjacent
to areas classified as
‘extreme risk to
structures’ in the riskhazard assessment
Caltrans, County
and city road
agencies; private
road associations,
PG&E, cable and
phone companies
Highest risk roadways as identified in the risk assessment Determine suite of treatment methods allowed and restriction for roadside hazard reduction including mowing, mastication, chemical, plantings, mulching, etc.

Develop treatment plan and rotation schedule for roadside treatments, focusing on primary evacuation or access/egress corridors.
• Annual spring maintenance of right-of-way
• Treat surface fuels for a minimum 10-foot buffer
and up to 30 feet where possible
• Trim fuels (limbing-up timber) to allow safe
passage of emergency vehicles
• Control for invasive species that may contribute to
rapid fire spread (i.e., weeds and grasses).
• Utilize CalVTP to expedite treatments
• Develop map that highlights critical routes.
• Align with evacuation modeling and planning
Collaborate with Santa Clara County Roads Dept. to identify areas of elevated fire risk and implement necessary treatment (e.g., Old Santa Cruz Highway, Idylwild Road)
Reduce fuel loading around roads
and highways to ensure safe
passage of vehicles in event of
evacuation and reduce unplanned
ignitions from vehicles and
highway users.

Regular maintenance schedule
should be implemented to ensure
clearance levels are maintained.

Develop standards for road crews,
including removal of slash.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• SRA
• CA Fire Safe Council
• CFIP
• NRCS
• FEMA
• GHGRF

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Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline
for Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources RL7 M Within
18 months
and ongoing
Mobilize private landowners to
reduce fuels around homes and
communities
Private lands across
all communities
FireSafe Council
County and private
lands.
• Planning Team entities should collaborate on
development of a property owner “play book” to
encourage and support property owner actions.

Playbook would include technical information on
best management practices for mechanical thinning
and manual clearing.
• Access to a database of contractors
• Project costs within county- knowledge of common
fuel treatment methodologies and their associated
costs
Empower property owners through other mechanisms:
• Develop an enforcement program providing the
County with cause to clean up derelict or
abandoned lots.
• Develop an incentive program for property owners.
• Identify treatment burdens and address with
outreach
• Establish a community bulletin for property owners
to post information on abandoned structures and
vegetation buildup on privately owned yards.
• Consider working with local volunteer groups to
increase capacity.

Provide residents with information
that helps them prioritize
treatments and plan their
defensible space projects.

Monitor effectiveness of different
treatment approaches and
implement adaptive approach for
updating the list depending on
uptake of various methods.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• NPS
• U.S. Forest Service
• CAL FIRE
• PG&E
RL8 L Ongoing Continue established agency
partnerships that retain hand
crews for fire hazard reduction
Countywide County Fire, CAL
FIRE, County
Sheriff (Weekend
Work Program),
CCC
Fuels management crews can be utilized as a countywide
resource to provide support during incident response, and they can achieve significant progress in fuels reduction projects.

Continue crew work in fire defense improvement work
throughout the county.
• Develop equipment needs to accomplish work
(including maintenance) and seek funding for
purchase.
• Create an educational tool for land/property owners
re: various methods, techniques, and cost for
various fuel treatments.
• Cultivate and support partnerships with NGOs and
volunteer groups to support implementation of
projects.

Create resilient landscapes and
address potential for extreme
wildfire behavior in and around the
WUI.

Create and maintain accountability
with local landowners/
managers.

Monitor cost effectiveness through
benefit cost ratio approach
Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• CAL FIRE Grant Programs
• SRA
• CA Fire Safe Council
• CFIP
• NRCS
• FEMA
• GHGRF
RL9 M Within 5
years
Feasibility study for biomass
reduction and utilization
Countywide Public-Private
Partnerships
Convene public and private industry partners to explore potential methods for biomass reduction and utilization. • Conduct benefit analysis to ensure that the energy
production potential outweighs transportation costs
• Work with local biomass utilization centers for
future partnerships with fuel managers and fire
agencies
Address a need for removal of
hazardous fuels resulting from
treatments
Increase opportunities for
treatment funding by creating a
carbon benefit
Create resilient landscapes
through increased fuel treatments.

Bi-monthly or quarterly review of
progress
Monitor cost and carbon benefit
and develop standards for biomass
utilization from fuel treatments.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress
• CAL FIRE Grant Programs
• SRA
• CA Fire Safe Council
• CFIP
• NRCS
• FEMA
• GHGRF

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Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline
for Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources RL10 H Ongoing Create a full-time permanent
funded Countywide Wildfire
Coordinator Position
Countywide Santa Clara
County, FireSafe
Council
Establish funding for a full-time Santa Clara County Wildfire Coordinator to increase wildfire planning efforts, implement trainings for residents and county agencies, and coordinate mitigation efforts with greater effectiveness.
• Must receive budget approval from Board of
Supervisors
• FSC would provide list of responsibilities of position Increase local and county level
planning
Build resilient landscape by scaling
up wildfire planning, coordination,
and training on a county level
Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress.
• Internal County funds
• CAL FIRE Grant Programs
• SRA
• CA Fire Safe Council
• CFIP
• NRCS
• FEMA
• GHGRF
RL 11 H Within
5 years
Survey for dead and dying trees
and conduct removal projects
throughout
County Wide
Lexington Hills area
Santa Clara County Conduct a thorough visual survey of the designated area to identify dead and dying tree, recording coordinates, tree characteristics, and overall density.
• Prioritize removal projects based on immediate
threats to infrastructure, public safety, or high-value areas
• Develop a detailed plan for the safe and efficient
removal of dead and dying trees
Coordinate with trained personnel and monitor progress
Build resilient landscape by
reducing dry fuel loads throughout
County
Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• SRA
• CA Fire Safe Council
• CFIP
• NRCS
• FEMA
• GHGRF

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When applying fuel treatments, every effort should be made to align treatments with the State Forest Action Plan Assessment and Strategy (CAL FIRE 2017, 2018) with consideration of all appropriate best management practices and sound science. In addition, treatments should be strategically located in areas to maximize effectiveness of other existing and ongoing projects (see Figure 4.1) and to address watershed and forest health. Consideration of environmental challenges should be built into recommendations, for example treating areas to reduce the impact of insect and disease or treating in a way that acknowledges and is sensitive to the trajectory of vegetation communities faced with drought and climate change. More information on forest health considerations and environmental challenges and how they might impact treatment choices is provided in Appendix B.

A list and detailed descriptions of fuels treatment types and methods, including defensible space practices and larger-scale projects, is housed in Appendix F.

When possible, simultaneously planning for the management of multiple resources while reducing fuels will ensure that the land remains viable for multiple uses in the long term. The effectiveness of any fuel reduction treatment depends on the degree of maintenance and monitoring that is employed. Monitoring will also ensure that objectives are being met in a cost-effective manner.

The treatment list is by no means exhaustive and should be considered purely a sample of required projects for the future management of the planning area. More detailed fuel treatment projects should be delineated and described in the jurisdictional annexes, at a scale more appropriate for developing site specific project recommendations. Many projects may be eligible for grant funds available from federal and/or state sources. For a list of funding sources, please refer to Appendix L.

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Figure 4.3. CEQA process.

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Ongoing, Planned, and Proposed Fuels Treatments in Santa Clara County
As previously stated, fuel treatments are an effective means of reducing fire risk to communities in the WUI. Fuel treatments such as mastication, thinning, prescribed burning, and dead tree removal serve to remove or lessen fuel loading and continuity and result in reduced fire behavior. For example, reducing ladder fuels minimizes transmission of fire from the surface into the crowns, and reducing tree density to increase crown spacing mitigates active crown fire spread through the tree canopies. In addition, treated areas enhance firefighter safety and accessibility, allowing firefighters to reach fires quickly and safely for early suppression.

Figure 4.4. Fuel reduction project in Santa Clara County.

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Figure 4.5. Fuel reduction project in Santa Clara County.

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GOAL 2: FIRE-ADAPTED

COMMUNITIES
In this CWPP, recommendations for fire-adapted communities include public education and outreach actions and actions to reduce structural ignitability.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION AND

OUTREACH
Just as environmental hazards need to be mitigated to reduce the risk of fire loss, so do human hazards.

Lack of knowledge, lack of positive actions (e.g., failing to create adequate defensible space), and negative actions (e.g., keeping leaf litter and exposed propane tanks close to structures) all contribute to increased risk of loss in the WUI.

Most residents in the WUI understand the risk that wildfire poses to their communities. However, it is important to continually engage the community as a partner in order to expand wildfire mitigation options across land ownership (McCaffrey 2004, 2020; McCaffrey and Olsen 2012; Winter and Fried 2000).

Methods to improve public education could include increasing awareness about fire department response and resource needs; providing workshops at demonstration sites showing Firewise landscaping techniques or fuels treatment projects; organizing community cleanups to remove green waste; publicizing availability of government funds for treatments on private land; and, most importantly, improving communication between property owners and local land management agencies to improve and build trust, particularly since the implementation of fuel treatments and better maintenance of existing treatments needs to occur in the interface between public and private land.

Within Santa Clara County, residents are most concerned about the extreme risk that wildfire poses to the community as well as to individual residences within the WUI. For those citizens who have engaged in the planning process and/or are familiar with CWPPs, many agree that the County needs the following wildfire support: home ignition zone inspections, chipping, community engagement, education, grant writing/funding, and evacuation planning. More detailed results of community surveys can be found in Appendix I.

The SCCFD already carries out many public education activities throughout the County, such as an education page and several fire-prevention programs (SCCFD 2023a). The fire department is a great resource for information and contacts regarding wildfire mitigation and wildfire prevention. Fire Safe Councils such as South Skyline Firesafe Council and Santa Clara County FireSafe Council both offer free chipping programs and provide a plethora of resources to educate the residents and inform them on best management practices for the goal of reducing wildfire hazards. See the Public Education and Outreach Programs section in Appendix B for more information.

Please see Appendix B, Public Education and Outreach Programs for a detailed list of educational resources within the County.

Table 4.2 lists public education recommendations to be implemented in the County.

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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REDUCING STRUCTURAL

IGNITABILITY
Table 4.2 provides a list of community-based recommendations to reduce structural ignitability that should be implemented throughout the Santa Clara County CWPP planning area. Reduction of structural ignitability depends largely on public education which provides property owners the information they need to take responsibility for protecting their own properties. A list of action items that individual property owners can follow can be found below. Carrying out fuels reduction treatments on public land may only be effective in reducing fire risk to some communities. The Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS) compared the impact of individual and community-level mitigation on individual property owner risks. They found that “the model indicates that all mitigation measures reduce the individual risk, but individual home mitigation – which individual property owners control – can have a bigger impact than any community mitigation alone” (CAS 2023). If property owners have failed to provide mitigation efforts on their own land, the risk of home ignition remains high, and firefighter lives are put at risk when they carry out structural defense. Detailed information regarding defensible space practices as well as a list of actions for reducing structural ignitability can be found in Appendix G.

Preparing for wildland fire by creating defensible space around the home is an effective strategy for reducing structural ignitability as discussed under Cohesive Strategy Goal 1: Resilient Landscapes.

For example, “Clearing an area of 30-100 feet from the home of combustible material creates the most effective buffer zone” (CAS 2023). Studies have shown that burning vegetation beyond 120 feet of a structure is unlikely to ignite that property through radiant heat (Butler and Cohen 1996), but fire bands that travel independently of the flaming front have been known to destroy houses that had not been impacted by direct flame impingement. Hardening the home to ignition from embers, including maintaining vent coverings and other openings, is also strongly advised to protect a home from structural ignitability. See Ember Ignition Hazards in Chapter 2. Managing the landscape around a structure by removing weeds and debris within a 30-foot radius and keeping the roof and gutters of a home clean are two maintenance measures proven to limit combustible materials that could provide an ember bed and ignite the structure. In essence, reducing structural ignitability and creating defensible space are key for protecting from the potential loss and damage done, as was seen during the 2020 SCU Lightening Complex fires.

See Appendix F for details on implementing defensible space and other treatments.

Below you will find pertinent information regarding recent legislation related to Goal 2 of the Cohesive Strategy. A detailed list of pertinent legislation is provided in Appendix A, Legislative Direction.

Assembly Bill 38: Assembly Bill 38 (2019) amended sections of the Civil, Government, and Public Resources Codes to set forth a comprehensive wildfire mitigation financial support program, which facilitates cost-effective home/structure hardening and retrofitting to create fire-resistant homes, businesses, and public structures. The amendments require the State Fire Marshal, in consultation with the Director of Forestry and Fire Protection and the Director of Housing and Community Development to identify building retrofits and hardening measures eligible for financial assistance under the program.

Additionally, the amendments require that CAL FIRE identify defensible space, vegetation management, and fuel treatment procedures eligible for financial assistance. Wildfire hazard areas eligible for financial assistance under the program include LRAs situated within very high FHSZs and SRAs within any FHSZ (CA GOPR 2020).

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Table 4.2. Recommendations for Creating Fire-Adapted Communities (Public Education and Reducing Structural Ignitability) Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline
for Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources FAC 1 H Ongoing Decrease ignitions from
unhoused populations.

WUI areas with
significant unhoused
populations including
parks and open space
areas countywide.

Santa Clara
County, private and
state lands.

Create a task force or team of PIOs and County
officials including members of the community to
create and disseminate outreach materials.
• Unify coordination.
• Create consistent messaging.
• Create goals and objectives.
• Evaluate areas of concern
• Provide information and resources guiding
individuals in the safe use of heating and
cooking materials.
• Provide unhoused populations with more
opportunities to make use of fuel sources
that reduce the risk of wildland ignitions.
• Consider implementing a fuel canister
recycling program for the purpose of
reducing the use of open flames and
canister waste.
• Apply for Community Resilience Centers
Program
Reduce wildland ignitions resulting
from unhoused populations.

PIOs meet once a quarter or once a
month.

Evaluate goals and objectives.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
FAC2 L Ongoing Create collaborative
relationships with local
agricultural and ranching
communities.

Countywide County, state, and
private lands.

County planning collaborative community practice –
they have a heat and air quality group; this could be a starting point for a steering committee.

Collect a list of organizations that work with
communities and identify ways to collaborate.

Analyze and address trends in shifting livestock types
to offset hurdles associated with climate change and
wildfire.

The Firesafe Council can facilitate meetings between
the CWPP Advisory Team and ranchers after the
CWPP is developed.

Raise awareness of wildfire risks and
hazards in rural areas throughout the
County.

Establish regular steering committee
meetings.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress
• Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
FAC3 M Ongoing Provide wildland fire overview
classes to local reporters and
news press employees to
ensure the information that is
being disseminated is correct
and not misleading.

Countywide Local news
stations, reporters,
newspapers, and
public bulletins.

Create a curriculum in collaboration with County PIOs
and FPD officials.
• Provide training on proper language
regarding wildland fire.
• Provide an overview of the incident
command system and decision-making
process.
• Provide example press releases and
methods for disseminating information to
the public.
• Reduce the use of dramatic language and
provide context and clarity in a way that
reduces fear and panic in the community.

Create more trust between the
community and fire agencies.

Increase the likelihood of residents to
follow evacuation orders.

Provide Annual refreshers or classes
to reporters, editors, PIOs, and other
press-related employees.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress
• Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
FAC4 H Ongoing Work with local fire departments
and communities to attain and
maintain Firewise USA
recognition.

Santa Clara County
fire departments and
communities. Santa
Clara County FireSafe
Council
County and private. SCCFSC working directly with CALFIRE and NFPA as a Regional Coordinator
SCCFSC in conjunction with FPDs will work with local
community leaders and HOAs for attaining and
maintaining Firewise certifications.

Reduce the risk and hazards of
wildfire to the WUI. Empower
residents to work with their neighbors
to build greater wildfire resiliency on
the community level.

Work with communities to establish
new Firewise USA recognition and
assist community Firewise
committees to evaluate progress
towards annual Firewise USA
recognition.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• Coastal Conservancy
• CWDG
• California Firesafe Council
• CAL FIRE

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Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline
for Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources FAC5 Ongoing H Ongoing Form a task force to do parcellevel inspection work to enhance risk modeling and be an
educational resource; utilize
portable data collection and
ArcGIS as analysis tools.

Countywide Private homes and
businesses.

Must have an agency champion to be accepted by the
public.

Agency responsibility would fall to the County Fire
Department and would expand to SCCFSC and other
entities to increase capacity.

Carry out parcel-level assessments to enhance risk
assessment model components at a finer scale.

Add data to the risk-hazard model and re-run as
necessary.

Create a comprehensive database of
parcel-level inspection data.

Inform decision-makers on risks to
structures throughout the county.

Set a target number of parcels to be
assessed each year.

Review the number of parcels
assessed each year at the annual
CWPP meeting.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress
• Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
• SRA
• GHGR
FAC6 Ongoing H Ongoing Establish and enforce defensible space standards.

County-wide, but
prioritize high and risk
areas as delineated
by the risk-hazard
assessment and
specifically, 'risk to
structures’ layer.

Local fire protection
districts, HOAs,
Private landowners
Promote defensible spaces:
• Make sure new homes/structures are made
with non-combustible materials
(i.e., encourage structural hardening)
• Enforce a minimum of 100 feet of
defensible space around structures.
• Clean and maintain ingress/egress routes.
• Ensure there are two ways out of a
community.
• Consider landscaping methods across
multiple properties that reduce fire potential
(e.g., connect fuel treatments across
different properties)
• Create a defensible space program. Include
pre-determined inspection frequency and
education/outreach efforts.
• Develop a staffing plan to support
enforcement and seek funding to implement
the plan.
• Educate property owners on real actions
that could mitigate their wildfire hazard and
risk.
• Provide tax incentives for defensible space
actions.
• Work with insurance companies to
determine the potential to provide
incentives for defensible space associated
with reduced insurance premiums.
• Consider green waste pickup/disposal
options.
• Promote and educate residents on home
hardening using NFPA, IBHS, or NIST
standards
Reduce loss of life and structures
through defensible space.

Annual program evaluation and
updates as necessary.

Consider updates to the building
code, where needed
Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress
• Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
• BRIC
• SRA
• GHGR
FAC7 Ongoing L Ongoing Add hyperspectral and LiDAR
imaging to periodic aerial
photography flights.

Countywide and
surrounding
jurisdictions.

Private, county,
and state lands.

Work in conjunction with the County Assessor or other
agency that acquires aerial photography of the county
and add additional sensing cameras to flights to
acquire specialized vegetation data.

Hyperspectral and LiDAR can
provide in-depth identification and
analysis of hazards and risks
associated with fuels and
topography.

These methods may work well to
evaluate the efficacy of fuel
treatments and fuel breaks.

Periodic new flights to update data
sets.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress
• Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
• BRIC
• SRA
• GHGR

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Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline
for Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources FAC8 Ongoing H Ongoing Educate citizens on how to
achieve contemporary WUI
code compliance in
retrofits/cost: benefit ratio.

Provide workshops and/or
demonstration site.

Countywide Fire Safe Councils,
County Fire, CAL
FIRE
Estimate costs for workshops and/or webinars.

Provide opportunities for the public to learn about WUI code and strategies for implementing home hardening
upgrades. See Chapter 4: Reducing Structural
Ignitability and Appendix G, Property Owner
Resources.

Refer to reports by Headwaters Economics on recent
home hardening upgrade options and costs for CA
Strategize on ways to coordinate this project with
parcel level inspection work.

Strategize avenues for engaging the public.

Be opportunistic- engage residents following a local
wildfire or at existing well-attended events, i.e., annual BBQ, Pancake Breakfasts, and open days offered by
Fire Departments.

Acquire resources through the Community Resilience
Centers Program to establish neighborhood-level
resilience centers.

Increase compliance with County
code.

Reduce fire risk levels for individual
parcels and the community.

Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
• BRIC
• SRA
• California Fire Safe Council
FAC9 H Ongoing Track Firewise USA recognized
communities, home inspections,
outreach events, fuel mitigation
work, Firesafe Council activities,
and CWPP action Items in the
CWPP project tracking tool.

N/A Santa Clara County
SCCFSC
Establish dedicated county personnel to evaluate
project progress, collect information from PIOs and
fire departments on outreach and education, and
compile data on home inspections and Firewise USA
community.

Regularly update the CWPP project tracking tool with
relevant statistics to be reviewed by the public and
monitored by county officials.

Align actions and updates across the county hub site,
story map, and CWPP project tracking tool.

Collaborate with groups countywide to incorporate
regular updates to the CWPP hub site and story map.

Coordinate regular meetings to discuss projects and
CWPP updates.

Develop and maintain countywide FAC practitioner
database
Track the progress of different
projects, programs, and initiatives.

Provide a centralized database of
certifications, inspections, and
mitigation activities that can help with
future grant work and funding goals.

Utilize the CWPP project tracking tool
at annual CWPP meetings, Firesafe
Council meetings, and Emergency
Management Planning meetings.

Reach out to SWCA Environmental
Consultants for guidance and training
on using the tracking tool.
• Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
• BRIC
• SRA
• California Fire Safe Council
FAC10 M Ongoing Increase and encourage
attendance of the Ag pass
program
Rural Santa Clara
County
Santa Clara
County, commercial
agriculture
producers
The existing Ag pass program is effective in
addressing post-fire concerns for ranchers and
farmers in the area.

Conduct outreach and marketing for the Ag Pass
program in relevant areas throughout the county.

The program allows eligible Santa Clara County cattle
producers access to their livestock in the event of a
wildfire.

Inform commercial ranchers and
farmers of opportunities to access
livestock in the event of a wildfire.

Evaluate attendance of outreach
events and fire safety trainings
associated with the Ag pass program.
• Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
• BRIC
• SRA
• California Fire Safe Council
FAC11 M Ongoing Incorporate local Resource
Conservation Districts (RCDs) in
the planning and outreach
process for CWPP updates and
implementation.

Countywide and
surrounding RCDs.

Santa Clara County Ensure RCDs are given a place at the table.

RCDs can provide connections and referrals and
often have good information on communities that can
help inform land managers during decision-making
processes.

The Guadalupe-Coyote RCD has a new staff member
who can support outreach. They are looking to fill
gaps, not provide redundant resources.

Provide the county with more support
and information regarding local
communities.

Support outreach regarding wildfire
risk.

Establish an RCD representative on
the Advisory Team. • Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
• BRIC
• SRA
• California Fire Safe Council

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Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline
for Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources FAC12 H Ongoing Utilize NextDoor as an outreach
tool
Countywide NextDoor now has a public agency platform that can link citizens to their neighborhoods and view agency
messaging.

Guadalupe-Coyote RCD has 1/3 of its population
viewing messages and has seen an increased trend
in people signing up for alerts and newsletters.

Collaborate with RCDs and PIOs on using NextDoor.

Provide county residents with a
reliable and centralized outreach
system.

Conduct quarterly meetings to
coordinate outreach efforts through
the program.
• Firewise grants
• FP&S (FEMA)
• EPA Environmental Education
Grants
• CWDG
• BRIC
• SRA
• California Fire Safe Council
FAC 13 H Ongoing Create smoke-ready
communities through facilitating
smoke education and providing
resources.

Countywide, focus on
smoke prone areas
and disadvantaged
communities
County Fire
Departments and
Fire Safe Councils
Identify smoke-prone regions and socioeconomically
disadvantaged communities that are most vulnerable
to impacts of smoke.

Work with FDs and Fire Safe Councils to develop
education materials
Work with County Air Quality and Extreme Heat
Working Group to develop materials
Provide resources (e.g. air cleaners) to vulnerable
and at-risk communities
Disseminate information through various channels,
including:
• Social Media
• Public Events
• In-Person Training and Workshops
• School Curriculum integration
Provide the community with
knowledge and strategies to reduce
the health impacts associated with
smoke form wildfires
Annual program evaluation and
updates as necessary. • CWDG
• Coastal Conservancy
• CAL FIRE
• California Firesafe Council
FAC 14 M Ongoing Research the need for a
Prescribed Burn Association
(PBA) or a Prescribed Burn
Council (PBC), and work with
partners to implement a
program.

Countywide SCCFSC, RCDs,
CAL FIRE, county
fire departments,
landowners, etc.

Evaluate existing legal and regulatory framework
surrounding prescribed burns in Santa Clara
Research the approach used by other existing
PBAs/PBCs in California organize their efforts
mitigate wildfire risk
Garner public involvement and interest, disseminate
educative materials to spread awareness of the
benefits of prescribes fires
Determine resource availability and additional needs
to establish and operate of PBA/PBC:
• Trained personnel
• Equipment
• Funding
• Partnership
Educate communities about the use
of prescribed fire
Reduce loss of life and structures
through decrease fuel loads
Annual program evaluation and
updates as necessary. • Coastal Conservancy
• CAL FIRE
• California Firesafe Council
FAC 15 H Ongoing Continued FAC education for
people residing, working, and
recreating in Santa Clara
County.

County Wide County Fire
Departments and
Fire Safe Councils
Educating members of the community on wildfire
science, fuels reduction, home hardening through:
• Training programs and workshops
• Community guidelines
• Train-the-trainer programs
• Forest health education programs
Promoting knowledge about smoke and its impact
with:
• Local alerts
• Public service announcements
• Guidance for indoor air quality measure
(e.g. air purifiers, closing windows)
Collaborate with FDs to develop plans and
communicate strategies that will help maximize
evacuation readiness
Provide those living, working, and
taking part in recreation within the
County with proper wildfire education
Increase community resilience to
wildfire impacts
Annual program evaluation and
updates as necessary. • CWDG
• CAL FIRE
• California Firesafe Council

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GOAL 3: WILDFIRE RESPONSE
Goal 3 of the Cohesive Strategy/Western Regional Action Plan is Wildfire Response: All jurisdictions participate in making and implementing safe, effective, efficient risk-based wildfire management decisions:
“A balanced wildfire response requires integrated pre‐fire planning with effective, efficient, and coordinated emergency response. Pre‐fire planning helps tailor responses to wildfires across jurisdictions and landscape units that have different uses and management objectives. Improved prediction and understanding of weather, burning conditions, and various contingencies during wildfire events can improve firefighting effectiveness, thereby reducing losses and minimizing risks to firefighter and public health and safety. Wildfire response capability will consider the responsibilities identified in the Federal Response Framework. Local fire districts and municipalities with statutory responsibility for wildland fire response are not fully represented throughout the existing wildland fire governance structure, particularly at the NWCG, NMAC, and GACC levels.” (WRSC 2013:15).

This section provides recommended actions that jurisdictions could undertake to improve wildfire response.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING FIRE RESPONSE

CAPABILITIES
Local fire departments are often the first on the scene to suppress wildland fires in the WUI in Santa Clara County. Therefore, it is important that local fire departments train personnel and maintain equipment for the specific purpose of suppressing wildland fire.

Based on Fire Department surveys administered as a part of this 2023 CWPP update, the San Jose, Palo Alto, and Gilroy fire departments together employ a total of 781 fire fighters. Of these, 85% are redcarded, with 654 red-carded fire fighters stationed in San Jose. This leaves 127 fire fighters stationed in rural parts of the County without proper NWCG training. These departments have voiced a need for NWCG courses and live fire exercises which will better prepare them for wildland fire operations such as burn outs, fire line construction, and hazard tree mitigation. Santa Clara County fire departments also recognize the importance of fuel reduction treatments for the purpose of limiting the growth of catastrophic wildfires and subsequently lessening the burden on local wildland fire suppression resources.

Furthermore, educating the public so they can reduce dependence on fire departments is essential because fire department resources are often stretched thin due to limited personnel, especially during busy periods, like what was observed during the SCU Lightning Complex. Education to enhance community preparedness is a key factor in supporting local fire departments in fire response, particularly educating residents about emergency notifications and evacuation protocols so that residents are able to safely evacuate an area while emergency responders prepare to protect life and property. There are several organizations that provide public education and outreach programs throughout the County.

The Santa Clara County and South Skyline FireSafe Councils both provide chipping and home advisory services as well as several wildfire community education events. In addition, several fire departments throughout the valley provide training and educational materials on wildfire prevention. To learn more about public education and outreach programs, see Appendix B.

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Detailed descriptions of fire response across the various levels of government in the County are provided in Appendix B, Fire Response Capabilities. This includes information on fire department resources, evacuation, and emergency preparedness.

Table 4.3 provides recommendations for improving firefighting capabilities and emergency response.

Many of these recommendations are general in nature and are designed to be tiered to at the jurisdictional annex level where additional specific details can be developed.

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Table 4.3. Recommendations for Safe and Effective Wildfire Response Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline for
Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources FR1 M Ongoing Reestablish protocols for
preplanned water
sources for fire
suppression operations
during times of drought.

Countywide Fire Safe Councils
or Fire Wise
Communities,
consultation with
SJW, Valley Water
and other water
providers
Ensure adequate water resources are placed and
identified in strategic locations around the county
during peak wildfire season. Locations of water
resources should be cataloged in an online mapping
program. Water infrastructure should be considered
during permitting processes and implemented into
pre-attack plans.
• Implement temporary water storage
solutions on private lands (dip tanks,
pumpkins, cisterns).
• Conduct portable dip tank training with fire
personnel.
• Create a countywide GIS and map of
temporary water resources.
• Improve existing fire flows in remote areas
to meet fire flow requirements
• Make sure fire flows in new developments
meet fire flow requirements
• Install water tanks where feasible.

In locations water tanks cannot be installed,
have tanks filled and pre-loaded to be
transported to areas of need in the event of
a fire
• Install additional tanks and standpipes
• Install helicopter dip tanks where
appropriate
• Initiate a detailed study of feasible locations
for water development improvements
• Install hand pumps or other methods
independent of the grid for accessing
private well water
• Ensure suppression crews have the
appropriate “keys” for hydrants or
standardized water fittings
• Consult with SJW, Valley Water and other
water providers
Improve fire-fighting response
Alleviate public and agency concerns
for limited water supply in certain
areas during times of drought
Aligns with the following plans:
• Santa Clara County
Operational Area Hazard
Mitigation Plan (2017)
Update the CWPP project tracking
tool with progress and relevant
statistics.
• CAL FIRE – Grant Portal
• AFG
• HMGP
• EMPG
• FMAG
• RCP
• SAFER
• BRIC
FR2 L Ongoing Determine the feasibility
of implementing a drone
program for the purpose
of monitoring wildfire
ignitions and Initial Attack
operations.

Countywide Local and state fire
agencies
Conduct a cost benefit analysis determining the
economic viability of a UAS program.

Identify and/or establish appropriate training protocols and certifications.

Create or identify a UAS job hazard analysis (JHA).

Emphasize to public that unauthorized UASs in active
fire areas interfere with Initial Attack operations
Improve fire reporting of small and
remote fires.

Notify fire suppression agencies of
wildfire ignitions and spread.

Certified UAS pilots are required.

Notify local civilian and fire related
aviation authorities of flight
operations.
• CAL FIRE – Grant Portal
• AFG
• HMGP
• EMPG
• FMAG
• RCP
• SAFER
• BRIC
FR3 L Ongoing Install a Countywide fire
detection camera system.

Countywide Santa Clara County
Office of
Emergency
Management
Determine costs, upkeep, and operational capacity of
a fire detection camera system.

Consider using a combination of UAS, Landscape
cameras, and satellite data.

Improve early detection of new
wildfire ignitions in Santa Clara
County.

Yearly testing and maintenance
before peak wildfire season.
• CAL FIRE – Grant Portal
• AFG
• HMGP
• EMPG
• FMAG
• RCP
• SAFER

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Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline for
Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources FR4 H Within 1 year Develop WUI Pre-Plans
for public safety agencies
to utilize in fire response
Countywide County Fire
Agencies
Utilize Zonehaven software.

Ground truth Zonehaven information by entity.

Facilitate safe and effective wildfire
response
Yearly testing and maintenance
before peak wildfire season.
• CAL FIRE – Grant Portal
• AFG
• HMGP
• EMPG
• FMAG
• RCP
• SAFER
FR5 H Within 1 year Develop a Countywide
evacuation plan
Countywide County Fire
Agencies
Utilize Zonehaven software
Ground truth Zonehaven by entity.

Use Assembly Bill 2911 subdivision review for
ingress/egress.

Notify citizens of evacuation plans
expeditiously.

Aligns with the following plans:
• Santa Clara County
Operational Area Hazard
Mitigation Plan (2017)
Yearly testing and maintenance
before peak wildfire season.
• CAL FIRE – Grant Portal
• AFG
• HMGP
• EMPG
• FMAG
• RCP
• SAFER
FR6 Ongoing M Ongoing Identify populations with
disabilities or access
needs during
evacuations.

Countywide Santa Clara County
Office of
Emergency
Management
Integrate consideration and approaches for
evacuation of vulnerable populations into the design
of education and outreach programs as well as
preplanning processes.

Assist in the safe evacuation of
vulnerable populations
Aligns with the following plans:
• Santa Clara County
Operational Area Hazard
Mitigation Plan (2017)
• Strategic Visioning Plan
(EOP) (2022)
Yearly assessment of data quality. • CAL FIRE – Grant Portal • AFG
• HMGP
• EMPG
• FMAG
• RCP
• SAFER
FR7 H Within 1 year Identify communities that
have poor ingress and
egress routes or oneway-out communities and
determine potential
solutions
Countywide Local Fire
Protection Districts
Develop a working group- outreaching to annex
holders- to address community concerns
Address specific ingress concerns in appropriate
annexes
Utilize existing CAL FIRE maps
Explore and implement a permitting process
Align with the Safety Element and HMP
Incorporate findings into/from jurisdictional annexes
and other evacuation related studies or assessments
Improve the evacuation of remote
communities and people with poor
ingress and egress options.

Aligns with the following plans:
• Santa Clara County
Operational Area Hazard
Mitigation Plan (2017)
• Strategic Visioning Plan
(EOP) (2022)
• Santa Clara County
General Plan Safety
Element (2023)
Yearly meeting of annex holders to
evaluate egress and ingress needs.
• CAL FIRE – Grant Portal
• AFG
• HMGP
• EMPG
• FMAG
• RCP
• SAFER
FR8 H Within 1 year Repaint or establish new
evacuation arrow
markers in
neighborhoods.

Countywide Santa Clara County
Office of
Emergency
Management
Paint arrows red or yellow.

Align markers with evacuation planning and identify
temporary refuge areas.

Improve the efficiency and safety of
evacuations.

Aligns with the following plans:
• Santa Clara County
Operational Area Hazard
Mitigation Plan (2017)
• Strategic Visioning Plan
(EOP) (2022)
Repaint arrows every 10 years • CAL FIRE – Grant Portal • AFG
• HMGP
• EMPG
• FMAG
• RCP
• SAFER

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Project
ID Status Priority (H,M,L)
Timeline for
Action Project Description Location Land Ownership/ Lead Agency Methodology/Approach Serves To: Monitoring/Maintenance Requirements Funding Sources FR9 M Ongoing Improve and provide
wildland fire specific
training opportunities to
local firefighters.

Santa Clara County Fire Protection
Districts, Fire
Stations, Rural
Volunteer Fire
Departments.

Expand certifications and qualifications for fire
department personnel. Ensure that all firefighters are
trained in basic wildfire behavior, basic fire weather, and that all company officers and chief level officers
are trained in the wildland command and strike team
leader level.

Develop agreements between agencies to provide
training opportunities for fire staff.

Ensure fire departments require all firefighters to be
red carded. A red card is required for firefighters to
work on an active federal fire incident.

Increase funds for volunteer Fire Department training
for response to fires in the WUI.

Reach out to the National Wildfire Coordination Group
(NWCG) for training materials, online courses, and
instructor needs.

Provide training opportunities for firefighter trainees to meet NWCG standards.

Expand chainsaw operation training programs.

Improve local fire department
wildland fire response and
suppression capabilities.

Reduce the damage caused by
wildfires.

Reduce the likelihood of firefighter
injuries and fatalities.

Aligns with the following plans:
• Santa Clara County
Operational Area Hazard
Mitigation Plan (2017)
• Strategic Visioning Plan
(EOP) (2022)
Provide annual red card
training/refresher/pack test events
before the start of fire season.

Provide online wildfire training
classes/refresher courses.

Establish Inter-agency training
cooperation.
• CAL FIRE – Grant Portal
• AFG
• HMGP
• EMPG
• FMAG
• RCP
• SAFER
FR10 New L Ongoing Create partnerships with
local ranchers. Increase
cooperation between
CAL FIRE, Incident
Management Teams, and
local landowners.

Santa Clara County
FSC
Rural areas,
ranchlands,
agricultural lands,
privately owned
open spaces.

Many local ranchers have private access roads,
gates, and bridges that can aid Incident Management
Teams with fire suppression operations and expedite
Initial Attack resource response. Private access roads
are not publicly mapped, and local landowners would
like it to stay that way. Consider implementing an
NDA to acquire private access information without
making it publicly available.

Ag Pass Contacts:

Stephanie Moreno
Sheila Barry
Improve Initial attack response
capabilities.

Improve fire agencies data on ingress
and egress routes.

Conduct pre-fire season meetings
with local ranch and agricultural
leaders.
• CAL FIRE – Grant Portal
• AFG
• HMGP
• EMPG
• FMAG
• RCP
• SAFER

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Page | 113 Table of Contents
CHAPTER 5 – MONITORING AND

EVALUATION
Developing an action plan and an assessment strategy that identifies roles and responsibilities, funding needs, and timelines for completing highest-priority projects is an important step in organizing the implementation of the Santa Clara County CWPP. The previous chapter identifies tentative timelines and monitoring protocols for project recommendations, the details of which are outlined below. The CWPP story map, hub site, and project tracking tools that accompany the CWPP are designed to help sustain the plan and encourage frequent updates and monitoring of the recommended projects. They also increase transparency to the public, showing the actions of land managers and agencies toward wildfire mitigation and thereby building community buy-in and support. The FireSafe Council will be the main entity providing CWPP coordination and encouraging long-term sustainability of project recommendations through the project tracking tool.

All stakeholders and signatories to this CWPP desire worthwhile outcomes. It is also known that risk reduction work on the ground, for the most part, is often not attainable in a few months—or even years.

The amount of money and effort invested in implementing a plan such as this requires that there be a means to describe, quantitatively and/or qualitatively, if the goals and objectives expressed in this plan are being accomplished according to expectations.

Monitoring and reporting contribute to the long-term evaluation of changes in ecosystems, as well as the knowledge base about how natural resource management decisions affect both the environment and the people who live in it. Furthermore, as the CWPP evolves over time, there may be a need to track changes in policy, requirements, stakeholder changes, and levels of preparedness. These can be significant for any future revisions and/or addendums to the CWPP and will be facilitated through use of the project tracker.

It is recommended that project monitoring be a collaborative effort. There are many resources for designing and implementing community based, multi-party monitoring that could support and further inform a basic monitoring program for the CWPP (Egan 2013).

Table 5.1 Identifies monitoring strategies for various aspects of all categories of CWPP recommendations and the effects of their implementation, both quantifiable and non-quantifiable, for assessing the progress of the CWPP and increase sustainability of projects. It must be emphasized that these strategies are 1) not exhaustive and 2) dependent on available funds and personnel to implement them.

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Table 5.1. Recommended Monitoring Strategies
Strategy Task/Tool Lead Remarks
Project tracking system On-line web app to track
hazardous fuels projects
spatially, integrating wildfire risk
layer to show progress towards
wildfire hazard and risk
reduction. Web app would
include attribute tables that
outline project details
FireSafe Council Interactive tool will
be easily updated
and identify areas
that require
additional efforts
Photographic record (documents
pre- and post-fuels reduction work,
evacuation routes, workshops,
classes, field trips, changes in open
space, treatment type, etc.)
Establish field global positioning
system (GPS) location; photo
points of cardinal directions; keep
photos protected in archival
location
Advisory or FireSafe
Council Team
member
Relatively low cost;
repeatable over
time; used for
programs and
tracking objectives
Number of acres treated (by fuel
type, treatment method)
GPS/GIS/fire behavior prediction
system
Advisory or FireSafe
Council Team
member
Evaluating costs,
potential fire
behavior
Number of home ignition
zones/defensible space treated to
reduce structural ignitability
GPS Property owner Structure protection
Number of residents/citizens
participating in any CWPP projects
and events
Meetings, media interviews,
articles
Advisory or FireSafe
Council Team
member
Evaluate culture
change objective
Number of property owner contacts
(brochures, flyers, posters, etc.)
Visits, phone Agency
representative
Evaluate objective
Number of jobs created Contracts and grants Advisory or FireSafe Council Team
member
Evaluate local job
growth
Education outreach: number, kinds
of involvement
Workshops, classes, field trips,
signage
Advisory or FireSafe
Council Team
member
Evaluate objectives
Emergency management: changes
in agency response capacity
Collaboration Agency
representative
Evaluate mutual aid
Codes and policy changes affecting
CWPP
Qualitative Advisory Team or
FireSafe Council
CWPP changes
Number of stakeholders Added or dropped Advisory Team or FireSafe Council
CWPP changes
Wildfire acres burned, human
injuries/fatalities, infrastructure loss,
environmental damage,
suppression, and rehabilitation costs
Wildfire records Advisory Team or
FireSafe Council
Compare with 5- or
10-year average

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FUELS TREATMENT MONITORING
It is important to evaluate whether fuel treatments have accomplished their defined objectives and whether any unexpected outcomes have occurred.

The strategies outlined in this section consider several variables:
• Do the priorities identified for treatment reflect the goals stated in the plan? Monitoring protocols can help address this question.
• Can there be ecological consequences associated with fuels work? Items to consider include soil movement and/or invasive species encroachment post-treatment. Relatively cost-effective monitoring may help reduce long term costs and consequences. • Vegetation will grow back. Thus, fuel break maintenance and fuels modification in both the home ignition zone and at the landscape scale require periodic assessment. Monitoring these changes can help decision-makers identify appropriate treatment intervals. • Monitoring for all types of fuels treatment is recommended. For example, in addition to monitoring mechanical treatments, it is important to carry out comprehensive monitoring of burned areas to establish the success of pre-fire fuels reduction treatments on fire behavior, as well as monitoring for ecological impacts, repercussions of burning on wildlife, and effects on soil chemistry and physics. Adaptive management is a term that refers to adjusting future management based on the effects of past management. Monitoring is required to gather the information necessary to inform future management decisions. Economic and legal questions may also be addressed through monitoring. In addition, monitoring activities can provide valuable educational opportunities for students.
• As the CWPP, landscape, and community evolve over time, there may be a need to track changes in policy, codes, requirements, stakeholder changes, and levels of preparedness. These can be significant for any future revisions and/or addendums to the CWPP.

The monitoring of each fuels reduction project would be site-specific, and decisions regarding the timeline for monitoring and the type of monitoring to be used would be determined by the project. The most important part of choosing a fuels project monitoring program is selecting a method appropriate to the people, place, and type of project. Several levels of monitoring activities meet different objectives, have different levels of time intensity, and are appropriate for different groups of people. They include the following:

Minimum—Level 1: Pre- and Post-project Photographs
Appropriate for many individual property owners who conduct fuels reduction projects on their properties.

Moderate—Level 2: Multiple Permanent Photo Points
Permanent photo locations are established using rebar or wood posts, global positioning system (GPS)-recorded locations, and photographs taken on a regular basis. Ideally, this process would continue over several years. This approach might be appropriate for more enthusiastic property owners or for agencies conducting small-scale, general treatments.

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High—Level 3: Basic Vegetation Plots
A series of plots can allow monitors to evaluate vegetation characteristics such as species composition, percentage of cover, and frequency. Monitors then can record site characteristics such as slope, aspect, and elevation. Parameters would be assessed pre- and post-treatment.

The monitoring agency should establish plot protocols based on the types of vegetation present and the level of detail needed to analyze the management objectives. This method is appropriate for foresters or other personnel monitoring fuel treatments on forested lands.

Intense—Level 4: Basic Vegetation Plus Dead and Downed Fuels Inventory The protocol for this level would include the vegetation plots described above but would add more details regarding fuel loading. Crown height or canopy closure might be included for live fuels. Dead and downed fuels could be assessed using other methods, such as Brown’s transects (Brown 1974), an appropriate photo series (Ottmar et al. 2000), or fire monitoring (Fire Effects Monitoring and Inventory System [FIREMON]) plots. This method is ideal for foresters or university researchers tracking vegetation changes in forested lands.

More information regarding fuel treatment types and methods can be found in Appendix F.

IMPLEMENTATION
The Santa Clara County CWPP makes recommendations for prioritized fuels reduction projects, for the purpose of reducing structural ignitability, as well as methods with which to carry out public education and outreach. Implementation projects need to be tailored to the specific project and will be unique to the location depending on available resources and regulations. As aforementioned, on-the-ground implementation of the recommendations in the Santa Clara County CWPP planning area will require the development of an action plan and assessment strategy for completing each project. This step will identify the roles and responsibilities of the people and agencies involved, as well as funding needs and timetables for completing the highest-priority projects (SAF 2004). Information pertaining to funding is provided in Appendix L.

PROJECT TRACKER
As described previously, within the hub site is a project tracking system designed to provide real-time updates and the ability for multi-agency coordination and collaboration. The tracking system is available for internal use and comes with the following features:
• Project database
• Project entries and sub-entries into the database
• Funding tracking
• Milestone and goal tracking
• Project constraint/opportunity tracking
• Project progress tracking
• Agency delegation
• Attach images or other files to project records

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• Spatially delineated project locations/working areas
Externally, the project tracker holds the ability to display statistics to the public, such as acres treated, dollars spent, or the number of meetings held.

CWPP EVALUATION
CWPPs are intended to reduce the risk of wildfire for a community and the surrounding environment.

However, over time, communities change and expand, vegetation grows back, and forests and wildlands evolve. As such, the risk of wildfire to communities is constantly changing. The plans and methods to reduce risk must be dynamic to keep pace with the changing environment. An evaluation of the CWPP will gather information and identify whether the plans and strategies are on course to meet the desired outcomes or if modifications are needed to meet expectations.

Four general steps can be used to evaluate the CWPP:

1. Identify objectives: What are the goals identified in the plan? How are they reached? Is the plan performing as intended?
a. Structural ignitability
b. Fuel treatments
c. Public education and outreach
d. Multi-agency collaboration
e. Emergency response

2. Assess the changing environment: How have population characteristics and the wildfire environment changed?
a. Population change
i. Increase or decrease
ii. Demographics
b. Population settlement patterns
i. Distribution
ii. Expansion into the WUI
c. Vegetation
i. Fuel quantity and type
ii. Drought and disease impacts

3. Review action items: Are actions consistent with the plan’s objectives? a. Check for status, i.e., completed/started/not started b. Identify completed work and accomplishments
c. Identify challenges and limitations
d. Identify next steps
e. Update the project tracker
f. Convene annex holders

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4. Assess results: What are the outcomes of the action items? a. Multi-agency collaboration
i. Who was involved in the development of the CWPP?
ii. Have partners involved in the development process remained involved in the implementation?
iii. How has the planning process promoted implementation of the CWPP? iv. Have CWPP partnerships and collaboration had a beneficial impact on the community? v. What is the status of CWPP annexes? Have annex holders been engaged in periodic update meetings?
vi. Have stakeholders been providing project updates for inclusion in the project tracker? b. Risk-Hazard Assessment
i. How is the Risk-Hazard Assessment utilized to make decisions about fuel treatment priorities?
ii. Have there been new wildfire-related regulations?
iii. Are at-risk communities involved in mitigating wildfire risk? iv. Has there been an update to the Risk-Hazard Assessment that should be integrated into the CWPP?
v. When is the last time the CWPP Management Team communicated with the RiskHazard Assessment authors? c. Hazardous fuels
i. How many acres have been treated?
ii. How many projects are cross-boundary?
iii. How many residents have participated in creating defensible space? d. Structural ignitability
i. Have there been updates to fire codes and ordinances? ii. How many structures have been lost to wildfire?
iii. Has the CWPP increased public awareness of structural ignitability and reduction strategies?
e. Public education and outreach
i. Has public awareness of wildfire and mitigation strategies increased? ii. Have residents been involved in wildfire mitigation activities? iii. Has there been public involvement?
iv. Have vulnerable populations been involved?
v. What is the traffic on the CWPP Story Map?
f. Emergency response
i. Has the CWPP continued to be integrated into relevant plans (e.g., hazard mitigation or emergency operations)?
ii. Does the CWPP remain congruent with other hazard mitigation planning efforts? iii. Has the availability and capacity of local fire departments changed since the CWPP was developed?

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TIMELINE FOR UPDATING THE CWPP
The HFRA allows for maximum flexibility in the CWPP planning process, permitting the Planning Team to determine the time frame for updating the CWPP. The Planning Team members are encouraged to meet on an annual basis to review the project list, discuss project successes, and strategize regarding project implementation funding. It is suggested that the evaluation framework above be used annually to make plan updates, and a more formal revision be made on the fifth anniversary of signing and every 5 years following. The Santa Clara County FireSafe Council will facilitate and oversee this process.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
°F degrees Fahrenheit
AMMs avoidance and minimization measures
ATV all-terrain vehicle
BAER Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation
BLM Bureau of Land Management
BMP best management practice
BTU/ft/sec British thermal units per foot per second
CA GOPR California Governor’s Office of Planning and Research CAL FIRE California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection California SJT California Silver Jackets Team
CalVTP California Vegetation Treatment Program
CAR community at risk
CARB California Air Resources Board
CAS Casualty Actuarial Society
CCI California Climate Investments
CCICC Central California Interagency Communications Center CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CDFA California Department of Food and Agriculture
CDFW California Department of Fish and Wildlife
CDI California Department of Insurance
CDPR California Department of Parks and Recreation
CE categorical exemption
CERT Community Emergency Response Team
CEQA California Environmental Quality Act
ch/hr chains per hour
CIG Conservation Innovation Grants
Cohesive Strategy National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy County Santa Clara County
CPUC California Public Utilities Commission
CRS Congressional Research Service
CUSP Coalition for the Upper South Platte
CVAR community value at risk
CWA Clean Water Act
CWH classified wildfire hazard

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CWPP community wildfire protection plan
DEM digital elevation model
DHS Department of Homeland Security
EAS Emergency Alert System
EIR Environmental Impact Report
EMS Emergency Management System
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EQIP Environmental Quality Incentives Program
ESRI Environmental Systems Research Institute
FAC fire-adapted community
FHSZ fire hazard severity zone
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency
FLAME Federal Land Assistance, Management and Enhancement Act FP&S Fire Prevention and Safety
FRA Federal Responsibility Area
FRI fire return interval
GAID Geographic Area Interagency Division
GIS geographic information system
GPS global positioning system
HFRA Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003
HIZ home ignition zone
HMP hazard mitigation plan
HOA homeowner association
HVRA highly valued resource or asset
IBHS Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety
ICC International Code Council
IFTDSS Interagency Fuel Treatment Decision Support System ISO Insurance Services Office
JPA Joint Powers Agreement
LAFC Local Agency Formation Commission
LHMP Local Hazard Mitigation Plan
LRA Local Responsibility Area
MFI mean fire interval
Midpen Midpeninsula Regional Open Space Authority
MND mitigated negative declaration
MROCD Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District

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MVFD Mountain View Fire Department
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
ND negative declaration
NFP National Fire Plan
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NIFC National Interagency Fire Center
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NPS National Park Service
NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service
NWCG National Wildfire Coordinating Group
OES Office of Emergency Services
OSCC Southern California Geographic Coordination Center PERI Public Entity Risk Institute
PFCG Post-Fire Coordination Group
PPE personal protective equipment
PRC Public Resources Code
PSPS public safety power shutoff
RAWS remote automated weather station
RCD Resource Conservation District
RFA Rural Fire Assistance
SAF Society of American Foresters
SAFER Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response SCCFD Santa Clara County Fire Department
SE statutory exemption
SHPO State Historic Preservation Office
SJFD San José Fire Department
SOD sudden oak death
SRA State Responsibility Area
SWCA SWCA Environmental Consultants
Task Force California Forest Management Task Force
UCANR University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources ULI Urban Land Institute
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
USDOI U.S. Department of the Interior
USFS U.S. Forest Service

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USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
VAR value at risk
VCC Vegetation Condition Class
VDEP Vegetation Departure
VMP vegetation management program
WRS wildfire risk to structures
WRSC Western Regional Strategy Committee
WUI wildland urban interface

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GLOSSARY
Aspect: Cardinal direction toward which a slope faces in relation to the sun (NWCG 2021b).

Active Crown Fire: A crown fire in which the entire fuel complex is involved in flame, but the crowning phase remains dependent on heat released from surface fuel for continued spread. An active crown fire presents a solid wall of flame from the surface through the canopy fuel layers. Flames appear to emanate from the canopy as a whole rather than from individual trees within the canopy. Active crown fire is one of several types of crown fire and is contrasted with passive crown fires, which are less vigorous types of crown fire that do not emit continuous, solid flames from the canopy (SWCA).

Available Canopy Fuel: The mass of canopy fuel per unit area consumed in a crown fire. There is no post-frontal combustion in canopy fuels, so only fine canopy fuels are consumed. We assume that only the foliage and a small fraction of the branchwood is available (Wooten 2021).

Available Fuel: The total mass of ground, surface and canopy fuel per unit area available fuel consumed by a fire, including fuels consumed in postfrontal combustion of duff, organic soils, and large woody fuels (Wooten 2021).

Backfiring: Intentionally setting fire to fuels inside a control line to contain a fire (Wooten 2021).

Biomass: Organic material. Also refers to the weight of organic material (e.g., biomass roots, branches, needles, and leaves) within a given ecosystem (Wooten 2021).

Burn Severity: A qualitative assessment of the heat pulse directed toward the ground during a fire. Burn severity relates to soil heating, large fuel and duff consumption, consumption of the litter and organic layer beneath trees and isolated shrubs, and mortality of buried plant parts (SWCA).

Canopy: The more or less continuous cover of branches and foliage formed collectively by adjacent trees and other woody species in a forest stand. Where significant height differences occur between trees within a stand, formation of a multiple canopy (multi-layered) condition can result (SWCA).

Chain: Unit of measure in land survey, equal to 66 feet (20 m) (80 chains equal 1 mile). Commonly used to report fire perimeters and other fireline distances. Popular in fire management because of its convenience in calculating acreage (example: 10 square chains equal 1 acre) (New Mexico Future Farmers of America 2010).

Climate adaptation: Adaptation is an adjustment in natural or human systems to a new or changing environment. Adaptation to climate change refers to adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities (CA GOPR 2020).

Climate Change: A change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods (CA GOPR 2020).

Community Assessment: An analysis designed to identify factors that increase the potential and/or severity of undesirable fire outcomes in WUI communities (SWCA).

Communities at Risk: Defined by the HFRA as “Wildland-Urban Interface Communities within the vicinity of federal lands that are at high risk from wildfire.” • CAL FIRE expanded on this definition for California including all communities (regardless of distance from federal lands) for which a significant threat to human life or property exists as a

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result of a wildland fire event. California uses the following three factors to determine at risk communities: 1) high fuel hazard, 2) probability of a fire, and 3) proximity of intermingled wildland fuels and urban environments that are near fire threats (CA GOPR 2020).

Community Emergency Response Team (CERT): The CERT program educates volunteers about disaster preparedness for the hazards that may impact their area and trains them in basic disaster response skills, such as fire safety, light search and rescue, team organization, and disaster medical operations. CERT offers a consistent, nationwide approach to volunteer training and organization that professional responders can rely on during disaster situations, allowing them to focus on more complex tasks (Ready 2021).

Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP): A planning document that seeks to reduce the threat to life and property from wildfire by identifying and mitigating wildfire hazards to communities and infrastructure located in the WUI. Developed from the HFRA, a CWPP addresses issues such as wildfire response, hazard mitigation, community preparedness, or structure protection (SWCA).

Conditional Surface Fire: A potential type of fire in which conditions for sustained conditional surface fire active crown fire spread are met but conditions for crown fire initiation are not. If the fire begins as a surface fire, then it is expected to remain so. If it begins as an active crown fire in an adjacent stand, then it may continue to spread as an active crown fire (Wooten 2021).

Contain: A tactical point at which a fire's spread is stopped by and within specific contain features, constructed or natural; also, the result of stopping a fire's spread so that no further spread is expected under foreseeable conditions. For reporting purposes, the time and date of containment. This term no longer has a strategic meaning in federal wildland fire policy (Wooten 2021).

Control: To construct fireline or use natural features to surround a fire and any control spot fires therefrom and reduce its burning potential to a point that it no longer threatens further spread or resource damage under foreseeable conditions. For reporting purposes, the time and date of control. This term no longer has a strategic meaning in federal wildland fire policy (Wooten 2021).

Cover type: The type of vegetation (or lack of it) growing on an area, based on cover type minimum and maximum percent cover of the dominant species, species group or non-living land cover (such as water, rock, etc.). The cover type defines both a qualitative aspect (the dominant cover type) as well as a quantitative aspect (the abundance of the predominant features of that cover type; Wooten 2021).

Creeping Fire: A low-intensity fire with a negligible rate of spread (Wooten 2021).

Crown Fire: A fire that advances at great speed from crown to crown in tree canopies, often well in advance of the fire on the ground (National Geographic 2021).

Defensible Space: An area around a structure where fuels and vegetation are modified, cleared, or reduced to slow the spread of wildfire toward or from a structure. The design and distance of the defensible space is based on fuels, topography, and the design/materials used in the construction of the structure (SWCA).
• In California, PRC Section 4291, “defensible space” refers to a 100-foot perimeter around a structure in which vegetation (fuels) must be maintained in order to reduce the likelihood of ignition. This space may extend beyond property lines, or 100 feet as required by State law as well as local ordinances, rules, and regulations (CA GOPR 2020).

Duff: The layer of decomposing organic materials lying below the litter layer of freshly fallen twigs, needles, and leaves and immediately above the mineral soil (SWCA).

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Ecosystem: An interacting natural system including all the component organisms together with the abiotic environment and processes affecting them (SWCA).

Environmental Conditions: That part of the fire environment that undergoes short-term changes:
weather, which is most commonly manifest as windspeed, and dead fuel moisture content (Wooten 2021).

Escape Route: A preplanned and understood route firefighters take to move to a safety zone or other low-risk area. When escape routes deviate from a defined physical path, they should be clearly marked (flagged; SWCA).

Evacuation: The temporary movement of people and their possessions from locations threatened by wildfire (SWCA).

Federal Responsibility Area (FRA): A term specific to California, designating areas where the federal government is responsible for fire response efforts. These areas include lands under federal ownership (CA GOPR 2020).

Fire-Adapted Community: A fire-adapted community collaborates to identify its wildfire risk and works collectively on actionable steps to reduce its risk of loss. This work protects property and increases the safety of firefighters and residents (USFA 2021b).

Fire Behavior: The manner in which fuel ignites, flame develops, and fire spread and exhibits other related phenomena as determined by the interaction of fuels, weather, and topography (Fire Research and Management Exchange System 2021).

Fire Break: Areas where vegetation and organic matter are removed down to mineral soil (SWCA).

Fire Environment: The characteristics of a site that influence fire behavior. In fire modeling the fire environment is described by surface and canopy fuel characteristics, windspeed and direction, relative humidity, and slope steepness (Wooten 2021).

Fire Frequency: A broad measure of the rate of fire occurrence in a particular area. For historical analyses, fire frequency is often expressed using the fire return interval calculation. For modern-era analyses, where data on timing and size of fires are recorded, fire frequency is often best expressed using fire rotation (SWCA).

Fire Hazard: Fire hazard is the potential fire behavior or fire intensity in an area, given the type(s) of fuel present – including both the natural and built environment – and their combustibility (CA GOPR 2020).

Fire Hazard Severity Zones: Fire hazard severity zones are defined based on vegetation, topography, and weather (temperature, humidity, and wind), and represents the likelihood of an area burning over a 30- to 50-year time period without considering modifications such as fuel reduction efforts. In California, CAL FIRE maintains fire hazard severity zone (FHSZ) data for the entire state. There are three classes of fire hazard severity ratings within FHSZs: Moderate, High, and Very High (CA GOPR 2020).

Fire History: The chronological record of the occurrence of fire in an ecosystem or at a specific site.

The fire history of an area may inform planners and residents about the level of wildfire hazard in that area (SWCA).

Fire Intensity: A general term relating to the heat energy released in a fire (SWCA).

Fireline Intensity: Amount of heat release per unit time per unit length of fire front. Numerically, the product of the heat of combustion, quantity of fuel consumed per unit area in the fire front, and the rate of spread of a fire, expressed in kilowatts per minute (SWCA). This expression is commonly used to

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describe the power of wildland fires, but it does not necessarily follow that the severity, defined as the vegetation mortality, will be correspondingly high (Wooten 2021).

Fire Prevention: Activities such as public education, community outreach, planning, building code enforcement, engineering (construction standards), and reduction of fuel hazards that is intended to reduce the incidence of unwanted human-caused wildfires and the risks they pose to life, property, or resources (CA GOPR 2020).

Fire Regime: A measure of the general pattern of fire frequency and severity typical to a particular area or type of landscape: The regime can include other metrics of the fire, including seasonality and typical fire size, as well as a measure of the pattern of variability in characteristics (SWCA).

Fire Regime Condition Class: Condition classes are a function of the degree of fire regime condition class departure from historical fire regimes resulting in alterations of key ecosystem components such as composition structural stage, stand age, and canopy closure (Wooten 2021).

Fire Return Interval: Number of years (interval) between two successive fires in a designated area (SWCA).

Fire Severity: A qualitative measure of the immediate effects of fire on the fire severity ecosystem.

It relates to the extent of mortality and survival of plant and animal life both aboveground and belowground and to loss of organic matter. It is determined by heat released aboveground and belowground. Fire Severity is dependent on intensity and residence dependent of the burn. For trees, severity is often measured as percentage of basal area removed. An intense fire may not necessarily be severe (Wooten 2021).

Fire Risk: “Risk” takes into account the intensity and likelihood of a fire event to occur as well as the chance, whether high or low, that a hazard such as a wildfire will cause harm. Fire risk can be determined by identifying the susceptibility of a value or asset to the potential direct or indirect impacts of wildfire hazard events (CA GOPR 2020).

Flammability: The relative ease with which fuels ignite and burn regardless of the quantity of the fuels (SWCA).

Flame Length: The length of flames in the propagating fire front measured along the slant of the flame from the midpoint of its base to its tip. It is mathematically related to fireline intensity and tree crown scorch height (Wooten 2021).

Foliar Moisture content: Moisture content (dry weight basis) of live foliage, foliar moisture content expressed as a percent. Effective foliar moisture content incorporates the moisture content of other canopy fuels such as lichen, dead foliage, and live and dead branchwood (Wooten 2021).

Forest Fire: uncontrolled burning of a woodland area (National Geographic 2021).

Fuel Break: A natural or manmade change in fuel characteristics which affects fire behavior so that fires burning into them can be more readily controlled (NWCG 2021c).

Fuel Complex: The combination of ground, surface, and canopy fuel strata (Wooten 2021).

Fuel Condition: Relative flammability of fuel as determined by fuel type and environmental conditions (SWCA).

Fuel Continuity: A qualitative description of the distribution of fuel both horizontally and vertically.

Continuous fuels readily support fire spread. The larger the fuel discontinuity, the greater the fire intensity required for fire spread (Wooten 2021).

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Fuel Loading: The volume of fuel in a given area generally expressed in tons per acre (SWCA). Dead woody fuel loadings are commonly described for small material in diameter classes of 0 to 0.25, 0.25 to 1, and 1 to 3 inches and for large material greater than 3 inches (Wooten 2021).

Fuel Management/Fuel Reduction: Manipulation or removal of fuels to reduce the likelihood of ignition and to reduce potential damage in case of a wildfire. Fuel reduction methods include prescribed fire, mechanical treatments (mowing, chopping), herbicides, biomass removal (thinning or harvesting or trees, harvesting of pine straw), and grazing. Fuel management techniques may sometimes be combined for greater effect (SWCA). More information about fuel management and fuel reduction can be found in Appendix F.

Fuel Model: A set of surface fuel bed characteristics (load and surface-area-to- fuel model volume-ratio by size class, heat content, and depth) organized for input to a fire model (Wooten 2021).

Fuel Modification: The manipulation or removal of fuels (i.e., combustible biomass such as wood, leaves, grass, or other vegetation) to reduce the likelihood of igniting and to reduce fire intensity. Fuel modification activities may include lopping, chipping, crushing, piling and burning, including prescribed burning. These activities may be performed using mechanical treatments or by hand crews. Herbicides and prescribed herbivory (grazing) may also be used in some cases. Fuel modification may also sometimes be referred to as “vegetation treatment” (CA GOPR 2020).

Fuel Moisture Content: This is expressed as a percent or fraction of oven dry fuel moisture content weight of fuel. It is the most important fuel property controlling flammability. In living plants, it is physiologically bound. Its daily fluctuations vary considerably by species but are usually above 80 to 100 percent. As plants mature, moisture content decreases. When herbaceous plants cure, their moisture content responds as dead fuel moisture content, which fluctuates according to changes in temperature, humidity, and precipitation (Wooten 2021).

Fuel Treatment: The manipulation or removal of fuels to minimize the probability of ignition and/or to reduce potential damage and resistance to fire suppression activities (NWCG 2021d). Synonymous with fuel modification.

Grazing: There are two types of grazing: 1) traditional grazing, and 2) targeted grazing. Traditional grazing refers to cattle that are managed in extensive pastures to produce meat. Targeted grazing involves having livestock graze at a specific density for a given period of time for the purpose of managing vegetation. Even though both kinds of grazing manage fuel loading in range- and forested lands, targeted grazing is different in that its sole purpose is to manage fuels. Targeted grazing is done by a variety of livestock species such as sheep, goats, or cows (UCANR 2019).

Ground Fire: Fire that burns organic matter in the soil, or humus; usually does not appear at the surface (National Geographic 2021).

Ground Fuels: Fuels that lie beneath surface fuels, such as organic soils, duff, decomposing litter, buried logs, roots, and the below-surface portion of stumps (Wooten 2021).

Hazard: A “hazard” can be defined generally as an event that could cause harm or damage to human health, safety, or property (CA GOPR 2020).

Hazardous Areas: Those wildland areas where the combination of vegetation, topography, weather, and the threat of fire to life and property create difficult and dangerous problems (SWCA).

Hazardous Fuels: A fuel complex defined by type, arrangement, volume, condition, and location that poses a threat of ignition and resistance to fire suppression (NWCG 2021e).

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Hazardous Fuels Reduction: Any strategy that reduces the amount of flammable material in a fireprone ecosystem. Two common strategies are mechanical thinning and controlled burning (Wooten 2021).

Hazard Reduction: Any treatment that reduces the threat of ignition and spread of fire (SWCA).

Highly Valued Resources and Assets: Landscape features that are influenced positively and/or negatively by fire. Resources are naturally occurring, while Assets are human-made (Interagency Fuel Treatment Decision Support System [IFTDSS] 2021).

Ignition: The action of setting something on fire or starting to burn (SWCA).

Incident: An occurrence or event, either natural or person-caused, which requires an emergency response to prevent loss of life or damage to property or natural resources (Wooten 2021).

Influence Zone: An area that, with respect to wildland and urban fire, has a set of conditions that facilitate the opportunity for fire to burn from wildland fuels to the home and or structure ignition zone (NWCG 2021a).

Initial Attack: The actions taken by the first resources to arrive at a wildfire to protect lives and property, and prevent further extension of the fire (SWCA).

Invasive Species: An introduced, nonnative organism (disease, parasite, plant, or animal) that begins to spread or expand its range from the site of its original introduction and that has the potential to cause harm to the environment, the economy, or to human health (USGS 2021).

Ladder Fuels: Fuels that provide vertical continuity allowing fire to carry from surface fuels into the crowns of trees or shrubs with relative ease (SWCA).

Litter: Recently fallen plant material that is only partially decomposed and is still discernible (SWCA).

Local Responsibility Area: A term specific to California, designating areas where the local government is responsible for wildfire protection. The Local Responsibility Area (LRA) includes incorporated cities, cultivated agricultural lands, and portions of the desert. LRA fire protection is typically provided by city fire departments, fire protection districts, counties, and by CAL FIRE under contract to local government (CA GOPR 2020).

Manual Treatments: Felling and piling of fuels done by hand. The volume of material generated from a manual fuel treatment is typically too small to warrant a biomass sale therefore collected material is disposed of by burning or chipping. The work can be performed by either a single individual or a large organized crew with powered equipment (UCANR 2021a).

Mechanized Treatments: Mechanical treatments pulverize large continuous patches of fuel to reduce the volume and continuity of material. Mechanical treatments can be applied as either mastication or chipping treatments. Both treatments shred woody material, but mastication leaves residue on-site while chipping collects the particles for transportation off site. Similar to hand treatments, mechanical treatments can target specific areas and vegetation while excluding areas of concern. In addition, mechanical treatment is easily scalable to large areas (>30 acres) with little added cost (UCANR 2021b).

Mitigation: Action that moderates the severity of a fire hazard or risk (SWCA).

Mutual Aid: Assistance in firefighting or investigation by fire agencies, irrespective of jurisdictional boundaries (NWCG 2021f).

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Native Revegetation: The process of replanting and rebuilding the soil of disturbed land (e.g., burned) with native plant species (USDA 2005).

Native Species: A species that evolved naturally in the habitat, ecosystem, or region as determined by climate, soil, and biotic factors (USDA 2005).

National Cohesive Strategy: The National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy is a strategic push to work collaboratively among all stakeholders and across all landscapes, using best science, to make meaningful progress toward three goals:
• Resilient Landscapes
• Fire-Adapted Communities
• Safe and Effective Wildfire Response
Vision: To safely and effectively extinguish fire when needed; use fire where allowable; manage our natural resources; and as a nation, to live with wildland fire (Forests and Rangelands 2021).

Overstory: That portion of the trees in a forest which forms the upper or uppermost layer (SWCA).

Passive Crown Fire: A type of crown fire in which the crowns of individual trees or small groups of trees burn, but solid flaming in the canopy cannot be maintained except for short periods. Passive crown fire encompasses a wide range of crown fire behavior, from occasional torching of isolated trees to nearly active crown fire. Passive crown fire is also called torching or candling. A fire in the crowns of the trees in which trees or groups of trees torch, ignited by the passing front of the fire. The torching trees reinforce the spread rate, but these fires are not basically different from surface (SWCA).

Prescribed Burning: Any fire ignited by management actions under specific, predetermined conditions to meet specific objectives related to hazardous fuels or habitat improvement. Usually, a written, approved prescribed fire plan must exist, and NEPA requirements must be met, prior to ignition (USFS 2021a).

Prescribed Herbivory: Prescribed herbivory for hazardous fuel reduction is the intentional use of domestic livestock to remove, rearrange, or convert vegetation on wildlands to reduce the costs and losses associated with wildfires and to enhance the condition of forests, rangelands, and watersheds.

The types of domestic livestock considered include sheep, goats, and cattle.

Rate of Spread: The relative activity of a fire in extending its horizontal dimensions. It is expressed as rate of increase of the total perimeter of the fire, as rate of forward spread of the fire front, or as rate of increase in area, depending on the intended use of the information. Usually, it is expressed in chains or acres per hour for a specific period in the fire's history (NWCG 2021g).

Resilience: Resilience is the capacity of any entity – an individual, a community, an organization, or a natural system – to prepare for disruptions, to recover from shocks and stresses, and to adapt and grow from a disruptive experience (CA GOPR 2020).

Response: Movement of an individual firefighting resource from its assigned standby location to another location or to an incident in reaction to dispatch orders or to a reported alarm (SWCA).

Safety Element: One of the seven mandatory elements of a local general plan (a county plan that forms the foundation for future development), the safety element must identify hazards and hazard abatement provisions to guide local decisions related to zoning, subdivisions, and entitlement permits. The element should contain general hazard and risk reduction strategies and policies supporting hazard mitigation measures (CA GOPR 2020).

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Slash: Debris left after logging, pruning, thinning, or brush cutting. Slash includes logs, chips, bark, branches, stumps, and broken trees or brush that may be fuel for a wildfire (SWCA).

Slope Percent: The ratio between the amount of vertical rise of a slope and horizontal distance as expressed in a percent. One hundred feet of rise to 100 feet of horizontal distance equals 100 percent (NWCG 2021h).

State Responsibility Area: A term specific to California, designating areas where the state has financial responsibility for wildland fire protection. Incorporated cities and lands under federal ownership are not included in the SRA. Lands under federal ownership are in the federal responsibility area (CA GOPR 2020).

Suppression: The most aggressive fire protection strategy, it leads to the total extinguishment of a fire (SWCA).

Surface Fire: fire that typically burns only surface litter and undergrowth (National Geographic 2021).

Surface Fuel: Fuels lying on or near the surface of the ground, consisting of leaf and needle litter, dead branch material, downed logs, bark, tree cones, and low stature living plants (SWCA).

Structural Ignitability: The ability of structures (such as homes or fences) to catch fire (SWCA).

Topography: The arrangement of the natural and artificial physical features of an area (SWCA).

Total Fuel Load: The mass of fuel per unit area that could possibly be consumed in a hypothetical fire of the highest intensity in the driest fuels (Wooten 2021).

Tree Crown: The primary and secondary branches growing out from the main stem, together with twigs and foliage (SWCA).

Understory: Low-growing vegetation (herbaceous, brush or reproduction) growing under a stand of trees. Also, that portion of trees in a forest stand below the overstory (SWCA).

Understory Fire: A fire burning in the understory, more intense than a surface fire with flame lengths of 1 to 3 m (Wooten 2021).

Values and Assets at Risk: The elements of a community or natural area considered valuable by an individual or community that could be negatively impacted by a wildfire or wildfire operations. These values can vary by community and can include public and private assets (natural and manmade) – such as homes, specific structures, water supply, power grids, natural and cultural resources, community infrastructure-- as well as other economic, environmental, and social values (CA GOPR 2020).

Vulnerable Community: Vulnerable communities experience heightened risk and increased sensitivity to natural hazard and climate change impacts and have less capacity and fewer resources to cope with, adapt to, or recover from the impacts of natural hazards and increasingly severe hazard events because of climate change. These disproportionate effects are caused by physical (built and environmental), social, political, and/ or economic factor(s), which are exacerbated by climate impacts. These factors include, but are not limited to, race, class, sexual orientation and identification, national origin, and income inequality (CA GOPR 2020).

Wildfire: A “wildfire” can be generally defined as any unplanned fire in a “wildland” area or in the wildland-urban interface (WUI) (CA GOPR 2020).

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Wildfire Exposure: During fire suppression activities, an exposure is any area/property that is threatened by the initial fire, but in National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) a reportable exposure is any fire that is caused by another fire, i.e., a fire resulting from another fire outside that building, structure, or vehicle, or a fire that extends to an outside property from a building, structure, or vehicle (USFA 2020).

Wildfire Influence Zone: A wildland area with susceptible vegetation up to 1.5 miles from the interface or intermix WUI (CA GOPR 2020).

Wildland: Those unincorporated areas covered wholly or in part by trees, brush, grass, or other flammable vegetation (CA GOPR 2020).

Wildland Fire: Fire that occurs in the wildland as the result of an unplanned ignition (CA GOPR 2020).

Wildland Fuels (aka fuels): Fuel is the material that is burning. It can be any kind of combustible material, especially petroleum-based products, and wildland fuels. For wildland fire, it is usually live, or dead plant material, but can also include artificial materials such as houses, sheds, fences, pipelines, and trash piles. In terms of vegetation, there are 6 wildland fuel types (Fuel Type: An identifiable association of fuel elements of distinctive species, form, size, arrangement, or other characteristics that will cause a predictable rate of spread or resistance to control under specified weather conditions.) The 6 wildland fuel types are (NWCG 2021i):
• Grass
• Shrub
• Grass-Shrub
• Timber Litter
• Timber-Understory
• Slash-Blowdown
Wildland Urban Interface (WUI): The WUI is the zone of transition between unoccupied land and human development. It is the line, area or zone where structures and other human development meet or intermingle with undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels (USFA 2021a). In the absence of a CWPP, Section 101 (16) of the Healthy Foresters Restoration Act defines the wildland urban interface as “ (I) an area extending ½ mile from the boundary of an at-risk community; (II) an area within 1 ½ miles of the boundary of an at-risk community, including any land that (1) has a sustained steep slope that creates the potential for wildfire behavior endangering the at-risk community; (2) has a geographic feature that aids in creating an effective fire break, such as a road or ridge top; or (3) is in condition class 3, as documented by the Secretary in the project-specific environmental analysis; (III) an area that is adjacent to an evacuation route for an at-risk community that the Secretary determines, in cooperation with the atrisk- community, requires hazardous fuels reduction to provide safer evacuation from the at-risk community.” A CWPP offers the opportunity to establish a localized definition and boundary for the WUI (USFS 2021a, 2021b).

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_____. 2017. Fire Department – XSC Mutual Aid Plan Appx. 13. Available at: https://www.sccfd.org/wpcontent/uploads/documents/mutual_aid_plan/app_13_01-17.pdf. Accessed April 2023. ———. 2018a. County of Santa Clara Integrated Pest Management Program Annual Report 2017/2018.

Available at: https://ipm.sccgov.org/sites/g/files/exjcpb1006/files/IPM-Annual-Report-Final-2017- 2018.pdf. Accessed July 2023.
———. 2018b. Department of Parks and Recreation, Strategic Plan. Available at:
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———. 2023a. Development Information and Guidelines for Fire Standards. Available at:
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———. 2023b. Division of Agriculture, Endangered Species. Available at:
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———. 2023c. Department of Planning and Development. Tree Preservation and Removal. Available at:
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Accessed April 2023.
———. 2023d. Community Emergency Response Teams (CERT). Available at:
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Accessed April 2023.
———. 2023f. Department of Planning and Development. Fire Marshal Permits and Clearances.

Available at: https://plandev.sccgov.org/how/build-or-improve-property/fire-marshal-permits-andclearances. Accessed April 2023.

Santa Clara County Fire Department (SCCFD). 2020. Strategic Plan 2020-2022. Available at:
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_____. 2023a. Fire Prevention: Brush Abatement Program. Available at: https://www.sccfd.org/fireprevention/fire-preventionoverview/#:~:text=The%20Santa%20Clara%20County%20Fire%20Department%20manages%20 and%20implements%20a,home%20to%20create%20defensible%20space. Accessed April 2023. _____. 2023b. Community Education Programs. Available at: https://www.sccfd.org/education-andpreparedness-overview/community-education-programs/. Accessed April 2023.

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Santa Clara County FireSafe Council (SCCFSC). 2019. State Route 17 Shaded Fuel Break Project Completed. Available at: https://sccfiresafe.org/projects/past-projects/sr17/#:~:text=The%20SR17%20Shaded%20Fuel%20Break,public%20health%20and%20the%20e nvironment. Accessed April 2023.
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Santa Clara Office of Emergency Management (SCC OES). 2017. Santa Clara County Operational Area Hazard Mitigation Plan. Available at:
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Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency. 2012. Santa Clara Valley Habitat Plan. Available at: https://scvhabitatagency.org/178/Santa-Clara-Valley-Habitat-Plan. Accessed April 2023.

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Santa Clara Valley Water News (Valley Water News). 2023. Valley Water Filling Up Many Percolation Ponds Across Santa Clara County. Available at: https://valleywaternews.org/2023/01/24/valleywater-filling-up-many-percolation-ponds-across-santa-claracounty/#:~:text=These%20percolation%20ponds%20help%20replenish%20local%20groundwater %2C%20which,sand%20allow%20water%20to%20seep%20into%20our%20aquifers. Accessed April 2023.

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Syphard, A.D., V.C. Radeloff, J.E. Keeley, T.J. Hawbaker, M.K. Clayton, S.I. Stewart, and R.B. Hammer. 2007. Human influence on California fire regimes. Ecological Applications 17(5):1388–1402.

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Town of Los Gatos 2021. 2040 General Plan. Available at:
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U.S. Department of the Interior and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2001. Urban Wildland Interface Communities within Vicinity of Federal Lands that are at High Risk from Wildfire.

Federal Register 66(3):751–777.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2019. Wildfire Smoke: A Guide for Public Health Officials.

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U.S. Fire Administration (USFA). 2020. Exposures. Available at: https://www.usfa.fema.gov/nfirs/codinghelp/nfirsgrams/nfirsgram-including-exposures.html. Accessed April 2023. ———. 2021a. What is the WUI? Available at: https://www.usfa.fema.gov/wui/what-is-the-wui.html.

Accessed March 2023.
———. 2021b. Fire-Adapted Communities. Available at: https://www.usfa.fema.gov/wui/communities/.

Accessed April 2023.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2002. Draft Recovery Plan for Chaparral and Scrub Community Species East of San Francisco Bay, California. Portland, Oregon: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Region 1.
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APPENDIX A:

Planning and Policy Background

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PLANNING PROCESS
The planning process has served to identify many physical hazards throughout the planning area that could increase the threat of wildfire to communities. The public also has helped to identify community values that it would most like to see protected. By incorporating public and Planning Team input into the recommendations, treatments are tailored specifically for the planning area so that they are sensitive to local residents’ concerns. The CWPP emphasizes the importance of collaboration among multijurisdictional agencies in order to develop fuels mitigation treatment programs to address wildfire hazards.

Tribal input for the planning process is especially crucial for preserving cultural heritage and traditional knowledge. Many Native American Tribal communities have sustainably managed wildfire and protected natural resources through a collection of ecologically sound practices developed and passed down over generations. It’s important for the Advisory Team and annex authors to consider TEK and engage with tribal communities throughout the plan’s lifespan to continue building out this important knowledge base.

The SAF, in collaboration with the National Association of Counties and the National Association of State Foresters, developed a guide entitled Preparing a Community Wildfire Protection Plan: A Handbook for Wildland-Urban Interface Communities (SAF 2004) to provide communities with a clear process in developing a CWPP. The guide outlines eight steps for developing a CWPP and has been followed in preparing the Santa Clara County CWPP:

Step One: Convene Decision-makers. Form a Planning Team made up of representatives from the appropriate local governments, local fire authorities, and state agencies responsible for forest management.

Step Two: Involve Federal Agencies. Identify and engage local federal representatives and contact and involve other land management agencies as appropriate.

Step Three: Engage Interested Parties. Contact and encourage active involvement in plan development from a broad range of interested organizations and stakeholders.

Step Four: Establish a Community Base Map. Work with partners to establish a base map(s) defining the community’s WUI and showing inhabited areas at risk, wildland areas that contain critical human infrastructure, and wildland areas at risk for large-scale fire disturbance.

Step Five: Develop a Community Risk-Hazard Assessment. Work with partners to develop a community Risk-Hazard Assessment that considers fuel hazards; risk of wildfire occurrence; homes, businesses, and essential infrastructure at risk; other values at risk (VARs); and local preparedness capability. Rate the level of risk for each factor and incorporate this information into the base map as appropriate.

Step Six: Establish Community Priorities and Recommendations. Use the base map and community Risk-Hazard Assessment to facilitate a collaborative community discussion that leads to the identification of local priorities for treating fuels, reducing structural ignitability and other issues of interest, such as improving fire response capability. Clearly indicate whether priority projects are directly related to the protection of communities and essential infrastructure or to reducing wildfire risks to other community values.

Step Seven: Develop an Action Plan and Assessment Strategy. Consider developing a detailed implementation strategy to accompany the CWPP as well as a monitoring plan that will ensure its long-term success.

Step Eight: Finalize Community Wildfire Protection Plan. Finalize the CWPP and communicate the results to community and key partners.

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This is not an exhaustive list and SWCA strides to ensure client expectations and goals are met with a custom CWPP that is streamlined to fit the needs of the community.

FIRE MANAGEMENT POLICY
The primary responsibility for WUI fire prevention and protection lies with property owners and state and local governments. Property owners must comply with existing state statutes and local regulations. These primary responsibilities should be carried out in partnership with the federal government and the private sector. The current federal Fire Policy states that protection priorities are 1) life, 2) property, and 3) natural resources. These priorities often limit flexibility in the decision-making process, especially when a wildland fire occurs within the WUI.

Santa Clara County has a complex arrangement of public and private fire protection organizations that provide preparedness planning and response to wildland fires and other emergencies. These organizations deserve commendation for the level of cooperation and coordination they employ to deliver high level of fire protection to Santa Clara County in a complicated jurisdictional environment.

For purposes of wildland fire protection, California law segregates lands within the state into three categories for jurisdictional and financial responsibility (Figure B.8): 1) FRAs, wherein a federal government agency has jurisdiction for wildland fire protection on federally owned land; 2) SRAs, wherein CAL FIRE has jurisdiction for wildland fire protection on all lands within this zone whether public or private ownership; and 3) LRAs, wherein neither the federal government nor the state have jurisdiction for wildland fire protection. All lands within an incorporated city, whether wildland or not, are designated LRAs by California law. Separate from jurisdiction for wildland fire protection is the jurisdiction for “all hazard” fire/rescue emergencies (structure fires, vehicle fires, vehicle accidents, rescues, medical emergencies, etc.). All hazard response is usually the jurisdictional responsibility of a local government organization. When land development occurs and population increases, a WUI fire protection situation is created. Local government (county, special district, or city) is responsible for delivering all hazard fire protection. Where SRA designated lands are involved, there can be dual, or layered, responsibility for delivering fire protection to the community. This layering occurs in the unincorporated areas of the Central Fire Protection District, Los Altos Hills County Fire Protection District, and South Santa Clara County Fire Protection District. Additionally, there are private, not-for-profit volunteer fire companies (Spring Valley, Casa Loma, Uvas, and Stevens Creek) in SRAs that, while having no governmental jurisdiction, are actively involved in planning and response to emergencies in their communities.

Areas in the eastern part of the county, portions of Almaden Valley and the Stanford University campus, are not within the normal response jurisdiction of any local fire agency (fire protection district, county service area, or county department (see Figure 1.4). Since these are unincorporated areas, the County Board of Supervisors has ultimate responsibility for provision of local fire protection and administration of building/fire codes. General Plan, local hazard mitigation planning, and land use development are also the responsibility of the County Board of Supervisors. Absent other agreement, the South Santa Clara County Fire Protection District, the Central Fire Protection District, or CAL FIRE will normally respond as a Good Samaritan to all hazard emergencies in these areas with no local government fire organization.

Local, State, and Federal Organizations
Santa Clara County Fire Department
Established in 1947, the Santa Clara County Fire Department has fire and life safety code responsibilities for the communities of Campbell, Cupertino, Los Altos, Los Altos Hills, Los Gatos, Monte Sereno,

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Saratoga, and all of unincorporated Santa Clara County. The Fire Chief of the Santa Clara County Fire Department is the County Fire Marshal.

All planned construction projects within the seven cities and towns and the entire unincorporated areas of the County are submitted to the local planning and building departments. Each of these jurisdictions forward the proposed development and building permit applications to Santa Clara County Fire Department's Fire Prevention Division for our review and comments. Prior to the issuance of building permits by the communities served, projects must meet all fire department requirements, including meeting California Building Code Chapter 7A requirements for buildings located in in any Fire Hazard Severity Zone within State Responsibility Areas or any Wildland-Urban Interface Fire Area to resist the intrusion of flames or boring embers projected by a vegetation fire. New development also must meet appropriate fire apparatus access and water supply requirements.

Every spring the Santa Clara County Fire Department sends defensible space letters to all residents within the jurisdiction living in locally identified Wildland-Urban Interface Areas and within the SRA of the District. Local engine companies perform field inspections, with follow up inspections from the Fire Prevention Division. Enforcement of defensible space is performed in coordination with each community's code enforcement program.

City Fire Departments
Santa Clara County contains 15 cities (Campbell, Cupertino, Gilroy, Los Altos, Los Altos Hills, Los Gatos, Milpitas, Monte Sereno, Morgan Hill, Mountain View, Palo Alto, San Jose, Santa Clara, Saratoga, and Sunnyvale). Most of these communities are considered to be at risk from wildfire. City fire departments typically work within a mutual aid framework to respond to emergencies in various jurisdictions as the incident evolves. The Milpitas Fire Department, for example, is able to respond to a wide variety of incidents, as well as enforcing fire and life safety codes, similar to the functions of other city fire departments.

Fire Safe Councils
Santa Clara County FireSafe Council
The Santa Clara County FireSafe Council is a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization that was chartered in 2001 and works countywide with a variety of partners at the federal, state, and local levels. Communities served by the FireSafe Council include the designated communities at risk: Stanford, Palo Alto, Los Altos Hills, Cupertino, Saratoga, Monte Sereno, Los Gatos, Lexington Hills, San Jose, Morgan Hill, Gilroy, East Foothills, and Milpitas, as well as parts of the region near the named communities listed that are also WUI areas with values at risk. The Santa Clara County FireSafe Council partners with agencies, jurisdictions, or organizations that share in its mission, which is “mobilizing the people of Santa Clara County to protect their homes, communities and environment from wildfires.” The Santa Clara County FireSafe Council, as a non-government organization, has no legal authority or responsibility to enforce laws or policies adopted by agencies having jurisdiction. The FireSafe Council serves its communities in four active program areas: Planning, Community Outreach and Education, Hazardous Fuel Reduction, and Fundraising. Funding for the FireSafe Council’s work is provided by federal, state, and other grants, as well as by the county, cities, fire agencies, and other community partners and individuals. The Council builds its work plan around implementing recommended programs and projects in this CWPP (see Section 6).

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The Santa Clara County FireSafe Council works cooperatively in the region served by the South Skyline FireSafe Council to support and enhance its work.

South Skyline FireSafe Council
The South Skyline FireSafe Council serves communities within San Mateo, Santa Cruz, and Santa Clara Counties, generally along Skyline Boulevard (California Highway 35). The area served in Santa Clara County is from Page Mill Road to Bear Creek Road, above Palo Alto, Saratoga, and the western edges of Lexington Hills. Its mission is to “provide education and outreach programs for fire prevention and preparedness to all South Skyline residents within the Council area in order to prevent the loss of lives and reduce losses of personal and public property and natural resources from wildfire” (South Skyline FireSafe Council 2023). The South Skyline FireSafe Council is funded through grants, donations, and in-kind contributions of time from a committed group of volunteers.

San Jose Water Company
Founded in 1866, the San Jose Water Company is an investor-owned public utility, serving over 1 million people in the San Jose metropolitan area. It provides groundwater from more than 100 wells for 40% of its supply and purchases treated water from the Santa Clara Valley Water District for 50% of its supply.

An additional 10% of its supply comes from its watershed in the Santa Cruz Mountains, treated at two water treatment plants.

The San Jose Water Company owns extensive watershed lands in the WUI, including upper Los Gatos Creek and a tributary of Saratoga Creek.

Santa Clara Valley Water District
Founded in 1929, the Santa Clara Valley Water District contains 10 reservoirs that impound water from storm runoff, as well importing water from the Sierra Nevada and pumping water from aquifers. The water district manages about 275 miles of creeks in Santa Clara County, or about one-third of the county’s 800 miles of creeks and rivers. In partnership with cities and Santa Clara County Parks Department, the water district also provides open space and recreational opportunities at many of its reservoirs and creeks.

Santa Clara County Department of Parks and Recreation
Formed in 1956, the Santa Clara Department of Parks and Recreation oversees regional parks, usually larger than local neighborhood or community parks and often more than 200 acres. The county park system has expanded to 28 regional parks covering approximately 52,000 acres since its first parkland, the 400-acre Stevens Creek County Park, was acquired in 1924. Parklands of significant size in the WUI include:
• Ed Levin County Park
• Joseph D. Grant
• Motorcycle & Field Sports
• Anderson Lake
• Coyote Lake Harvey Bear Ranch
• Mt. Madonna
• Uvas Reservoir
• Uvas Canyon
• Calero
• Almaden Quicksilver
• Santa Teresa
• Lexington Reservoir
• Villa Montalvo
• Sanborn

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• Stevens Creek • Rancho San Antonio
Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority
The Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority is an independent special district and not part of county government. Its purpose is to preserve key portions of the natural environment using a variety of tools, including land and easement acquisition, as well as participating in planning and conservation activities.

Established in 1993 by the state legislature and Governor Wilson, its jurisdiction is all of Santa Clara County, except Gilroy and lands and communities within the boundaries of the Midpen. The Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority currently protects over 28,000 acres and has four open space preserves that are open to the public:
• Coyote Valley Open Space Preserve
• Rancho Cañada del Oro Open Space Preserve
• Sierra Vista Open Space Preserve
• Máyyan 'Ooyákma – Coyote Ridge
The Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority participates with the cities of Milpitas, Santa Clara, San Jose, Campbell, and Morgan Hill.

County Roads and Airports
The County’s Roads and Airports Department operates and maintains 635 miles of rural and urban roadways in unincorporated areas (https://www.sccgov.org/sites/rda/about/Pages/standards.aspx).

County Roads Standard Specifications state that erosion control and highway planting shall conform to the provisions in Section 20 “Erosion Control and Highway Planting” of the most current edition of the State Standard Specifications.

County Agriculture Weed Abatement
The mission of the Santa Clara County Department of Agriculture Weed Abatement Program is to protect lives, property, and the environment by providing education and hazard abatement for the communities served. The purpose of the Weed Abatement Program is to prevent fire hazards created by vegetative growth and the accumulation of combustible debris through voluntary compliance.

See weed abatement standards at https://www.sccgov.org/sites/wap/Pages/standards.aspx.

The Department of Agriculture’s Weed Abatement Program inspects parcels that have been declared a public nuisance and are included in the program throughout the year. Abatement work is ordered by an inspector on properties when the minimum fire safety standards have not been satisfied or if the owner has requested that the county contractor perform the necessary work. The abatement charges for any work performed by the contractor and a county administrative fee are included on property tax statements as a special assessment.

San Francisco Public Utilities Commission
The San Francisco Public Utilities Commission–owned watershed lands include the Alameda Watershed, with 13,000 acres in northeastern Santa Clara County.

See http://www.sfwater.org/index.aspx?page=198.

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Municipal Roads Departments
Cities with significant road maintenance responsibility in the WUI include Palo Alto, Los Altos Hills, Cupertino, Saratoga, Los Gatos, Monte Sereno, San Jose, Morgan Hill, Gilroy, and Milpitas.

Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District
Founded in 1972, the Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District, or Midpen, is a regional greenbelt system, covering over 70,000 acres in 26 open space preserves in three counties. The district manages a wide variety of vegetation, including chaparral, oak woodlands, fir and redwood forests, riparian corridors, grasslands, and wetlands, with over 250 miles of trails. The Sierra Azul area southeast of Los Gatos is the largest unit in the district. The following preserves are located in Santa Clara County:
• Bear Creek Redwoods Open Space Preserve
• Coal Creek Open Space Preserve
• El Sereno Open Space Preserve
• Foothills Open Space Preserve
• Fremont Older Open Space Preserve
• Los Trancos Open Space Preserve
• Monte Bello Open Space Preserve
• Picchetti Ranch Open Space Preserve
• Rancho San Antonio Open Space Preserve
• Saratoga Gap Open Space Preserve
• Sierra Azul Open Space Preserve
• St Joseph’s Hill Open Space Preserve
City Parks and Open Space
Several cities own large parks and open space areas with unmaintained natural wildland environments, including:
• Palo Alto Foothills Park and Arastradero Preserve
• Palo Alto Baylands
• City of San Jose Alum Rock Park
Regional Trail Corridors and Urban Open Space Parks
WUI is a term used to describe human development that is surrounded by natural wildland environment.

In Santa Clara County there also exists the converse arrangement: natural wildland environments that remain but have become enveloped by the urban environment. This includes regional trails, creek corridors, and pocket parks that have unmaintained areas with open space characteristics.

These ribbons of wildland/creek/trail corridors, as well as urban parks with unmaintained open space characteristics, are often outside designated WUIs or FHSZs, which result in complications.

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A partial list of regional trails with wildland characteristics include:
• Bay Trail
• Penitencia Creek Trail
• Guadalupe River Parkway
• Coyote Creek Trail
• Calero/Los Alamitos Creek Trails
• Los Gatos Creek Trail
See information regarding the City of San Jose’s trail network: https://www.sanjoseca.gov/yourgovernment/departments-offices/parks-recreation-neighborhood-services/parks-trails/trail-network Also see Santa Clara County’s regional trails system at: https://parks.sccgov.org/about-parks/plansprojects/countywide-trails A partial list of urban parks with unmaintained natural areas include:
• Hellyer
• Communications Hill
• Martial Cottle
• Lake Cunningham
• Vasona Lake
• Guadalupe River
• Las Animas Veterans Park
• Christmas Hill Park
• Dennis Debell Uvas Creek Preserve
• Byrne Preserve
California Department of Parks and Recreation
The California Department of Parks and Recreation (CDPR) manages 280 units. Two of these units are located in Santa Clara County: Martial Cottle State Park, comprising 256 acres of farmland (managed by Santa Clara County Parks Department), and Henry W. Coe State Park. The Coe unit is the largest state park in northern California at 89,164 acres, with 22,000 acres of land designated as a wilderness area.

In August 2020, 55,000 acres of the state park were burned by the SCU Lightning Complex fires. After a period of closure to allow for crews to clear various hazards and for the vegetation to begin recovery, the park was re-opened in March 2021 (CDPR 2023).

California Department of Fish and Wildlife
The CDFW manages over 1 million acres of fish and wildlife habitat in 711 properties around the state, with habitats from every major ecosystem in the state. Within Santa Clara County, the agency manages the 5,800-acre Cañada de los Osos Ecological Reserve, near Henry W. Coe State Park. The property, formally known as the Stevenson Ranch, was acquired by the Nature Conservancy in 2000 and sold to the agency in 2001. The unit is a mixture of grasslands, oak and montane woodland, chaparral, and

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riparian and wetland habitats. Prescription grazing and burning may be employed if the need is determined to exist.

University California Natural Reserve System
The University of California Natural Reserve System encompasses 41 sites covering 47,000 acres of protected natural area throughout California, which is the largest university-administered reserve system in the world. Within Santa Clara County, the Blue Oak Ranch Reserve is located on the slopes of Mt. Hamilton. Covering 3,259 acres, four plant communities are found in the reserve, which are becoming rare in California: valley oak woodland, blue oak woodland, wildflower fields, and native perennial grassland. The Blue Oak Ranch Reserve contains a rich variety of plant families, more than 130 species of birds, and many species of terrestrial and aquatic animals, including the rare river otter (Lontra canadensis). Prescribed fire may play a role in facilitating valley oak regeneration, which has become rare.

State Highways / Caltrans
The Vegetation Management Program at Caltrans is scaling up and facilitates collaboration with external partners. Caltrans should be included in planning efforts where the state highway bisects the county priorities, so that the Caltrans right-of-way can become part of the fire adapted community effort to ensure safe ingress and egress during a wildfire event.

National Fire Protection Association
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is a global nonprofit organization devoted to eliminating death, injury, and property and economic loss due to fire, electrical, and related hazards. Its 300 codes and standards are designed to minimize the risk and effects of fire by establishing criteria for building, processing, design, service, and installation around the world (NFPA 2023).

The NFPA develops easy-to-use educational programs, tools, and resources for all ages and audiences, including Fire Prevention Week, an annual campaign that addresses a specific fire safety theme.

The NFPA’s Firewise Communities program encourages local solutions for wildfire safety by involving property owners, community leaders, planners, developers, firefighters, and others in the effort to protect people and property from wildfire risks.

The NFPA is a premier resource for fire data analysis and research. The Fire Analysis and Research division conducts investigations of fire incidents and produces a wide range of annual reports and special studies on all aspects of the nation’s fire problem.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Don Edwards National Wildlife Refuge is a federally managed property located on the southern end of San Francisco Bay. The refuge comprises a 30,000-acre oasis for millions of migratory birds and endangered species. The refuge, created in 1974, was largely the result of grassroots efforts by the local community to protect the San Francisco Bay ecosystem.

Roads Agencies
Generally, roads are maintained primarily to serve the transportation needs of the public; however, road rights-of-way include the vegetation adjacent to the pavement, which could be considered a type of wildland to be managed for wildfire prevention. Roadsides are frequently the site of ignition for wildfires, and evacuees may need to use the roadways to leave the area even if the vegetation on both sides of the road is on fire.

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In addition, due to the critical importance of roads for providing ingress for firefighting apparatuses while simultaneously evacuating the public, certain factors such as width, grade, and turning radius need to be addressed.

Private Organizations
Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety
The Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety (IBHS) is an independent, nonprofit, scientific research and communications organization supported solely by property insurers and reinsurers.

The IBHS’s building safety research leads to real-world solutions for home and business owners, helping to create more resilient communities. Its mission is to conduct objective, scientific research to identify and promote the most effective ways to strengthen homes, businesses, and communities against natural disasters and other causes of loss.

The IBHS conducts laboratory and field experiments in structural ignitability and has helped develop new guidelines for defensible space zones to emphasize ember resistance and a “home ignition zone.” Insurance and Loss Reduction Research Associations
The insurance and fire prevention industries have committed significant resources to studying wildfires and structural ignitions. Their cutting-edge research findings help drive the adoption or modification of new building codes.

Water Purveyor and Watershed Management Organizations
Wildfire can cause serious degradation of both watershed management infrastructure and water quality.

Burned watersheds can result in greater runoff, erosion, and sedimentation, with a loss of water quality and increased cost of water treatment. Since heavier amounts of vegetation will burn more severely than lighter wildland fuels, allowing an accumulation of untreated wildland fuels to occur in watersheds and riparian areas can lead to a loss of water quality and significant environmental degradation, which can be very expensive to repair. As is the case with property owners, risk mitigation is dependent on fuels treatment performed before a wildfire occurs and cannot rely solely on the timely arrival of fire suppression resources.

LEGISLATIVE DIRECTION
County Direction
Santa Clara County Fire Code
The current Santa Clara County Fire Code was amended in 2012 and became effective January 17, 2013. The Fire Code of the County is adopted from the 2010 edition of the California Fire Code and the 2009 International WUI Code and is amended to suit the needs of the county. The Fire Code is effective within the county boundaries where a municipal code does not have jurisdiction, including private land.

Implementation, administration, and enforcement of the code are carried out by the building official of Santa Clara County. The code pertains to all construction that will be used for human habitation including new construction, additions, repairs, and renovations (Santa Clara County 2012).

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Santa Clara County also has specific fire standards and practices for various project types. These include land development, construction, special events and tents/canopies, fireworks, and care facilities. Many of the Santa Clara County Fire Standards are currently under revision. Assistance from the County Fire Marshall’s Office is available at (408) 299-5760 (Santa Clara County 2023a).

Santa Clara County Fire Marshal
Section A33-47 of the Santa Clara County Code and Section 101 of the California Fire Code gives the County Fire Marshal the authority to make and enforce such rules and regulations for the prevention and control of fire and fire hazards as may be necessary to carry out the intent of the Code. The Fire Marshal's Office also has the responsibility for enforcing Title 19 of the California Code of Regulations, and portions of the California Building Code, as adopted by the County of Santa Clara.

The County Fire Marshal has the authority to make and enforce such rules and regulations for the prevention and control of fire and fire hazards.

As noted by CAL FIRE, California’s building codes have two parts relevant to wildfire: remove flammable vegetation from around the building; and construct the building of fire-resistant material.

With regard to clearance, the law requires that property owners conduct fuels modification to 100 feet or to the property line if this distance is less than 100 feet. This provides both defensible space for firefighters in which to work and protection for the home.

With regard to building codes, standards have been developed to improve the resistance of buildings to ignition from airborne embers. New buildings located in any FHSZ within SRAs (building permit submitted after January 1, 2008), in any LRA-very high FHSZ (building permit submitted after July 1, 2008), or in any WUI fire area designated by the enforcing agency (building permit submitted after January 1, 2008) will comply with all sections of California Code of Regulations Title 24, Part 2, 701A.3.2 (New Buildings Located in Any Fire Hazard Severity Zone).

For LRAs, in which local government has responsibility for wildland fire protection, CAL FIRE provides recommendations for very high FHSZs. Local government, in turn, uses these recommendations to designate very high FHSZs within its jurisdiction. Local government may exclude fire protection requirements prompted by the map designation and may adopt, modify, or deny the very high FHSZ recommendation.

Taken together, these building codes are intended to improve the resilience of a building to ignition from either direct flame contact or from airborne embers. In incidents in which the rate of wildfire spread, and the number of homes at risk from the wildfire, exceeds suppression capacity, this resilience may determine whether the building survives.

It is essential to know the correct municipal jurisdiction for your parcel to determine fire prevention jurisdiction. Use the following link to find out: https://plandev.sccgov.org/how/research-property/findjurisdiction

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Past Amendments to the Santa Clara County Fire Code
Sec. B7-13. - Chapter 49 Amendments.
(c)
Section 4907.1 is amended to read as follows:
4907.1 General. Defensible space shall be maintained around all buildings and structures in State Responsibility Area (SRA) as required in Public Resources Code 4290 and "SRA Fire Safe Regulations" California Code of Regulations, Title 14, Division 1.5, Chapter 7, Subchapter 2, Section 1270 and this section.

Buildings and structures within the Very-High Fire Hazard Severity Zones of a Local Responsibility Area (LRA) shall maintain defensible space as outlined in Government Code sections 51175 to 51189 and this section.

Defensible space shall be provided around water tank structures, water supply pumps and pump houses.

Persons owning, leasing, controlling, operating or maintaining buildings or structures in the WildlandUrban Interface Fire Area Zone and persons owning, leasing or controlling land adjacent to such buildings or structures, shall at all times:

1. Maintain an effective defensible space by removing and clearing away flammable vegetation and combustible growth from areas within distances of such buildings or structures as outlined below:

Fire Hazard Severity Zone Distance
Very High 50 feet
All others 30 feet
• Exception: Single specimens of trees, ornamental shrubbery or similar plants used as ground covers, provided that they do not form a means of rapidly transmitting fire from the native growth to any structure.

2. Maintain additional effective defensible space by removing brush, flammable vegetation and combustible growth located 30 feet to 100 feet (9,144 mm to 30,480 mm) when required by the fire code official due to steepness of terrain or other conditions that would cause a defensible space of only 30 feet (9,144 mm) to be insufficient. Exception: Grass and other vegetation located more than 30 feet (9,144 mm) from buildings or structures and less than 18 inches (457 mm) in height above the ground need not be removed where necessary to stabilize the soil and prevent erosion.

3. Remove portions of trees, which extend within 10 feet (3,048 mm) of the outlet of a chimney.

4. Maintain trees adjacent to or overhanging a building free of deadwood; and

5. Maintain the roof of a structure free of leaves, needles or other dead vegetative growth.

6. Remove flammable vegetation a minimum of 10 feet around liquefied petroleum gas tanks/containers.

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7. Firewood and combustible materials shall not be stored in unenclosed spaces beneath buildings or structures, or on decks or under eaves, canopies or other projections or overhangs. The storage of firewood and combustible material within the defensible space shall be located a minimum of 30 feet (6,096 mm) from structures and separated from the crown of trees by a minimum horizontal distance of 15 feet (4,572 mm). Exception:

Firewood and combustible materials not for consumption on the premises shall be stored as approved by the fire code official.

8. Clear areas within 10 feet (3,048 mm) of fire apparatus access roads and driveways to of non-fire-resistive vegetation growth. Exception: Grass and other vegetation located more than 30 feet (9,144 mm) from buildings or structures and less than 18 inches (457 mm) in height above the ground need not be removed where necessary to stabilize the soil and prevent erosion.

County IPM and Pesticide Use Reduction Ordinance Division B-28 The purpose of the County Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Pesticide Use Reduction Ordinance Division B-28 is to regulate and provide guidelines for pest control on County-owned properties, including regional parks, roads, airports, office complexes, hospitals, prisons, and animal shelters. The ordinance addresses various common IPM challenges, such as ants, bedbugs, flies, roaches, wasps, termites, rodents, birds, weeds, and plant insects and diseases. It is important to note that the IPM ordinance does not extend to private property or other jurisdictions (Santa Clara County 2018a).

State Direction
Direction from Plans
CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Fire Plan
The Santa Clara Unit of CAL FIRE provides fire protection to many areas within Santa Clara County, as well as to Contra Costa, Alameda, and the western portions of San Joaquin and Stanislaus counties.

The 2015 CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Fire Plan uses the Seven Strategic Goals and Fire Plan Framework identified in the California Strategic Fire Plan and translates them into work to be done within its area of responsibility. Tactically, the Santa Clara Unit has an objective of keeping all wildland fires to 10 acres or less. Strategically, the primary goal of wildland fire protection in the unit is to safeguard the wide ranges of values found within the unit from the effects of wildfire.

The Santa Clara Unit employs multiple programs to accomplish this goal, including development of prefire management tactics, fire prevention, a defensible space inspection (LE-100) program for fire safe clearance around structures, information and education programs, and the vegetation management program (VMP) to reduce hazardous fuels and achieve natural resource management goals with within an SRA.

California Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan
The 2021 California Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan recognizes that California faces continued and urgent threats from catastrophic wildfire. The purpose of this plan is to provide a foundation for supporting healthy, resilient, fire adapted forests. The plan is organized into four overarching goals which

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break down into sub-goals and their respective action items. Some of the goals/strategies specific to wildfire include:

1. Increase Fuel Breaks: Reduce the risk of wildfire and slow fire spread within the WUI.

2. Protect Wildfire-Prone homes and Neighborhoods: Expand and extend defensible space programs.

3. Improve Utility related wildfire risk: Ensure electrical corporations are compliant with wildfire regulations.

4. Create Fire-Safe Roadways: Ensuring emergency evacuation routes and acts as a fuel break.

Like the 2014 national strategy, California’s 2019 Strategic Plan, California’s Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan, and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000, all mandate community-based planning efforts with full stakeholder participation, coordination, project identification, prioritization, funding review, and multiagency cooperation. In compliance with Title 1 of the HFRA, a CWPP must be mutually agreed upon by the local government, local fire departments, and the state agency responsible for forest management. As outlined in HFRA, this CWPP is developed in consultation with interested parties and the federal agencies managing land surrounding the at-risk communities. See Figure A.1 for an overview of California’s wildfire regulatory environment.

Figure A.1. California’s wildfire regulatory framework. Source: California Governor’s Office of Planning and Research (CA GOPR 2022)
California Bills and Regulations
Assembly Bill 179: In September of 2022, Governor Newsom signed budget bill AB 179 authorizing $1.3 billion dollars over the next two years to build wildfire resilience and bolster forest health throughout the state. The bill allocates $472 million dollars toward forest health and fire prevention planning, $130 million toward state-owned land stewardship, $50 million for post-fire reforestation, $170 million for state conservancy forest health projects, $70 million for fire crews and prescribed burning activities,

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$40 million for the Regional Forest and Fire Capacity Program, $30 million for workforce development, and $25 million to assist small landowners (California Wildfire & Forest Resilience Task Force 2022).

This plan is part of the governor’s Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action plan which aims to increase and expedite forest health projects to sustain and protect communities and meet economic and environmental goals (Department of Water Resources 2021).

Assembly Bill 1823: The Bill amended PRC 4290.1 to require that on or before July 1, 2022, the State Board of Forestry and Fire Protection to develop criteria for and maintain a “Fire Risk Reduction Community” list of local agencies located in a State Responsibility Area (SRA) or a very high hazard severity zone that meet best practices for local fire planning. The existing law requires the State board to consider specific factors when developing the criteria for the list, including recently developed or updated community wildfire protection plans (CWPPs) (CA GOPR 2022a). This CWPP is in alignment with the requirement stipulated by Assembly Bill (AB) 1823 (2019).

PRC 4124.7: Public Resources Code 4124.7 requires CAL FIRE to prioritize local agencies in the “fire risk reduction community” list for Fire Prevention Grants. (CAL FIRE 2023b).

Senate Bill 1241: Senate Bill 1241 (2012) revised the safety element stipulations in State law to instruct all cities and counties whose planning area is within the SRA or a very high fire hazard severity zone to address and include specific information concerning wildfire hazards and risk, and strategies and policies to address and minimize unreasonable risks associated with wildfire. The specific requirements are codified in chapter 311 of the Bill. As a result, CAL FIRE maintains fire hazard severity zone maps and data for the entire State. Three classes of fire hazard severity classifications exist: moderate, high, and very high. Fire hazard severity considers the amount of vegetation, temperature, wind, humidity, and topography, and represents the likelihood of an area burning over a 30 to 50-year interval (CA GOPR 2022a).

Senate Bill 379: Senate Bill 379 (2015) amended Government Code Section 65302(g)(4) to require that all general plans in California address climate change adaptation and resilience as part of the safety portion of the plan. This amendment requires local jurisdictions to add this change as part of the next revision to their local hazard mitigation plan or, if a local hazard mitigation plan has not been adopted, the safety element must be reviewed and updated to include applicable climate adaptation and resilience strategies (CA GOPR 2022a). This CWPP may be integrated into the Safety Element of the City General Plan during the next scheduled revision.

Senate Bill 246: As established by Senate Bill 246 in 2015, the Integrated Climate Adaptation and Resiliency Program (ICARP) is the leading program responsible for coordinating response to climate change impacts on a local, regional, and state scale. ICARP utilizes the Adaptation Clearing House, an online database of climate resources, and coordinates with the Technical Advisory Council to aid in facilitation of resiliency efforts. CA GOPR recommends that climate change–related safety updates be made in alignment with ICARP vision, principals, definitions, and wildfire requirements where applicable (CA GOPR 2022a).

Senate Bill 901: Senate Bill 901 (2018) requires the State Board to regularly update regulations for fuel breaks and greenbelts close to communities to enhance fire safety within the State Responsibility Area or areas designated as Very High Fire Hazard Severity Zones. The Bill also requires that the updated regulations include measures to maintain undeveloped ridgelines to minimize fire risk and enhance fire protection (CA GOPR 2022a).

PRC 4290: Public Resources Code Section 4290 confers the State Board with the authority to adopt regulations for base level fire safety standards with respect to State Responsibility lands and to lands

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designated as Very High Fire Hazard Severity Zone. The fire safety standards address multiple issues, including fuel modification standards for fuel breaks and greenbelts; road and driveway standards for emergency response access and public evacuation; minimum private water supply reserves for fire suppression; and standards for street, road, and building signage. However, these standards do not replace local regulations that meet or exceed minimum requirements adopted by the State Board (CA GOPR 2022a).

PRC Section 4291: Public Resources Code Section 4291 details mandatory defensible space requirements for any person who owns, leases, controls, operates, or maintains a building in an SRA or very high FHSZ within a Local Responsibility Area (LRA). The requirements include, but are not limited to, 100 feet of defensible space around homes, removal of vegetation debris from the perimeter and the roof of homes/structures, and removal of vegetation from chimneys or stovepipes. This code was updated in January 2021 to require an ember-resistant zone within 5 feet of a home/structure on or before January 1, 2023 (CA GOPR 2022a).

Assembly Bill 38: Assembly Bill 38 (2019) amended sections of the Civil, Government, and Public Resources Codes to set forth a comprehensive wildfire mitigation financial support program, which facilitates cost-effective home/structure hardening and retrofitting to create fire-resistant homes, businesses, and public structures. The amendments require the State Fire Marshal, in consultation with the Director of Forestry and Fire Protection and the Director of Housing and Community Development, to identify building retrofits and hardening measures eligible for financial assistance under the program.

Senate Bill 1035: Senate Bill 1035 (2018) amended Section 65302 of the California Government Code to require local agencies to update the climate adaptation section (safety element) of the general plan at least every eight years. This mandate would require local agencies to identify new information relating to fire hazards, climate adaptation, and resiliency measures that were not available during the last revision of the safety element (CA GOPR 2022a).

Senate Bill 535: Senate Bill 535 (2012) outlines the initial funding requirements to communities that have been identified as “Disadvantaged Communities” (DACs). The designation is based on pollution burden, prior designation as a disadvantaged community, and federal land status (i.e., federally recognized tribes) (California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment 2023). 6,936 people have been designated under a disadvantaged community within the City of Santa Clara, census tract number 6085505202, by CalEPA (COEHHA 2022). Through their designation as a DAC, these communities will receive priority for funding through the California Climate Investments Program (CCIP), including the Wildfire Prevention Grants Program, which is a part of the CCIP and is administered by CAL FIRE (State of California 2022).

Evacuation Planning Requirements: Assembly Bill 747 (2019), Assembly Bill 1409 (2020), and Senate Bill 99 (2019) were signed into law to enhance evacuation planning at the local level. Assembly Bills 747 and 1409 require local agencies to assess evacuation routes and locations under a variety of emergency scenarios. Whereas Senate Bill 99 requires municipalities to identify communities with less than two evacuation routes. These planning mandates should be considered when assessing wildfire risk in the safety element of the general plan (CA GOPR 2022a).

PRC 4290.5: Assembly Bill 2911 (2018) added Section 4290.5 to the PRC, which requires the State Board, in consultation with the State Fire Marshal and the local jurisdiction, to identify existing

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subdivisions with more than 30 dwelling units in the State Responsibility Area or areas designated as Very High Fire Hazard Severity Zones without secondary egress routes, that are at high risk for fire.

Following identification of subdivisions without secondary egress routes, the State Board must provide recommendations to the local government to enhance public safety in such subdivisions. This process must begin on or before July 1, 2021 and repeat every five years thereafter. If available, recommendations made by the Board should feed directly into the community’s general plan update (CA GOPR 2022a).

Agricultural Pass Program: Section 2350 of California Food and Agricultural Code provides local government authorities with the ability to set up pass programs with the aim of allowing vetting agricultural operators with the necessary access to closed areas during emergency or for conducting eligible activities. The decision-making process for agriculture pass considerations will be carried out by incident commanders and law enforcement that have jurisdiction for the site. Eligible activities that prompt access to these restricted zones include livestock care and evacuation, water system management, access to agricultural properties or facilities, and the transportation of necessary equipment for reestablishing water systems (UCANR 2022).

PRC 4202: Public Resources Code Section 4202 mandates that the State Fire Marshal classify lands within the planning area into FHSZs. There are three classes of fire hazard severity ratings within FHSZs:

Moderate, High, and Very High (CA GOPR 2022a). FHSZs are used for many purposes, such as to identify areas where California’s defensible space standards, WUI codes, and the State Minimum Fire Safe Regulations are mandated as well as to identify the level of hazard in a specified area or region.

It’s important to note that mitigation requirements apply to all zones within the planning area (CAL FIRE 2022c).

CAL FIRE 2022 Fire Hazard Severity Zones Update: In accordance with PRC 4202, CAL FIRE maintains fire hazard severity zone (FHSZ) data for the entire state. FHSZs were originally determined and released in 2007; however, CAL FIRE recently updated these zones for the SRA in December 2022.

The new FHSZs are currently in the public review process. Fire hazard severity zones are defined based on vegetation, topography, and weather, and represent the probability of the area burning and potential fire behavior in the area. The new iteration of the FHSZs also accounts for land use changes, recent fire history, new wind data, and local climate data. FSHZs for the LRA are currently in development and expected for release in summer of 2022 (CAL FIRE 2022b, 2022c).

Federal Direction
In response to a landmark fire season in 2000, the National Fire Plan (NFP) was established to develop a collaborative approach among various governmental agencies to actively respond to severe wildland fires and ensure sufficient firefighting capacity for the future. The NFP was followed by a report in 2001 entitled A Collaborative Approach for Reducing Wildland Fire Risks to Communities and the Environment:

A 10-year Comprehensive Strategy, which was updated in 2002 to include an implementation plan. This plan was updated once more in 2006, with a similar focus on using a collaborative framework for restoring fire-adapted ecosystems, reducing hazardous fuels, mitigating risks to communities, providing economic benefits, and improving fire prevention and suppression strategies. The 2006 implementation plan also emphasizes information sharing and monitoring of accomplishments and forest conditions, a long-term commitment to maintaining the essential resources for implementation, a landscape-level vision for restoration of fire-adapted ecosystems, the importance of using fire as a management tool, and continued improvements to collaboration efforts (Forests and Rangelands 2006). Progress reports and lessons learned reports for community fire prevention are provided annually.

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In 2003, the U.S. Congress recognized widespread declining forest health by passing the Healthy Forests Restoration Act (HFRA), and President Bush signed the act into law (Public Law 108–148, 2003).

The HFRA was revised in 2009 to address changes to funding and provide a renewed focus on wildfire mitigation (H.R. 4233 - Healthy Forest Restoration Amendments Act of 2009). The HFRA expedites the development and implementation of hazardous fuels reduction projects on federal land and emphasizes the need for federal agencies to work collaboratively with communities. A key component of the HFRA is the development of Community Wildlife Protection Plans (CWPPs), which facilitate the collaboration between federal agencies and communities in order to develop hazardous fuels reduction projects and place priority on treatment areas identified by communities in a CWPP. A CWPP also allows communities to establish their own definition of the WUI, which is used to delineate priority areas for treatment.

In addition, priority is placed upon municipal watersheds, critical wildlife habitat, and areas impacted by wind throw, insects, and disease. Communities with an established CWPP are given priority for funding of hazardous fuels reduction projects carried out in accordance with the HFRA.

In 2014, the final stage of the development of a national cohesive strategy for wildfire was developed:

The National Strategy: The Final Phase in the Development of the National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy (Forests and Rangelands 2014). The national strategy takes a holistic approach to the future of wildfire management:

To safely and effectively extinguish fire, when needed; use fire where allowable; manage our natural resources; and as a Nation, live with wildland fire.

In order to achieve this vision, the national strategy goals are:

1. Restore and maintain landscapes: Landscapes across all jurisdictions are resilient to fire-related disturbances in accordance with management objectives.

2. Fire-adapted communities: Human populations and infrastructure can withstand a wildfire without loss of life and property.

3. Wildfire response: All jurisdictions participate in making and implementing safe, effective, efficient risk-based wildfire management decisions (Forests and Rangelands 2014:3).

PAST PLANNING EFFORTS
Local
Santa Clara County Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP): The Santa Clara CWPP was originally developed in 2016 in response to the federal Healthy Forests Restoration Act (HFRA) of 2003.

The plan is designed to assist in protecting human life and reducing property loss due to wildfire and emphasizes the importance of collaboration among multi-jurisdictional agencies in order to develop fuels mitigation treatment programs to address wildfire hazards (Santa Clara County 2016).

Community Scale CWPPs
Several community scale CWPPs have been developed throughout the County over the last 2 decades.

Most of these plans have since been transitioned to annex documents that tier from the County CWPP and provide more fine scale data and recommendations that can be applied at a local level, but these documents still contain information that can inform future planning and should be considered a resource for annex authors.

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Lexington Hills Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP): The Lexington Hills CWPP was developed in 2009 in accordance with the requirements set forth by the HFRA. The plan is an example of a community scale document, based on a scientifically rigorous analysis of wildfire hazards and risks and provided recommendations to help stakeholders effectively prevent and mitigate the threat of wildfires to the area's assets. The analysis and content of this plan have since been updated through the 2016 Santa Clara CWPP Annexes. Hazard conditions in some Lexington Hills communities have elevated since the completion of the 2009 CWPP and many recommendations are still applicable and should play a role in guiding future mitigation actions in the Lexington Hills Annex (Annex 1- Chapter 1).

Santa Clara County General Plan: The Santa Clara County General Plan was developed in 1994 and serves to guide land use changes in a manner that provides for proper and safe community development.

Several “elements” in the General Plan (e.g., safety, housing, circulation, and open space) have a direct relationship to the WUI fire problem. The General Plan can serve to reduce the threat of natural or human-caused disasters by directing land use policies for hazard prone areas (i.e., proper community design, open space land use, and reducing population in areas prone to wildfire). Its policies can direct government agencies to carry out community and agency education programs, alerting citizens and staff as to what to do in the event of an emergency. The Plan also identifies that much of the mountainous areas of Santa Clara County are considered “high or extreme fire hazard areas,” and identifies that access issues, water supply, building requirements, and defensible space are the most critical wildfire hazards that should be addressed through policy and planning. These areas are identified as “Resource Conservation Areas” where new development is limited to low density and low intensity uses. (Santa Clara County 1994). The General Plan Safety Element is being revised concurrently with this planning effort and alignment between these efforts has been a goal of the CWPP Planning Team. The Housing Element is also undergoing an eight-year periodic review, and the County has identified areas for housing growth that are outside of the WUI.

Emergency Operations Plan: The 2022 Santa Clara County Emergency Operations Plan (EOP) is an all-hazards document that is an update to the previous 2017 EOP and describes the County’s incident management structure, relevant guidelines, community engagement, and compliance with relevant legal statutes. The plan also states the County of Santa Clara as the Operation Area lead agency regarding Califorina’s standardized Emergency Management Systems (SEMS). The EOP establishes an incident management organization for the County and overall operational concepts associated with emergency management. The EOP provides a flexible platform for planning and response to all hazards and incidents important to the operational area including wildfire. A comprehensive hazard analysis overview of wildfire is provided including purpose, scope, assumptions, and a situational overview of wildfire hazards.

Multi-Jurisdictional Local Government Hazard Mitigation Plan: In 2005, the Association of Bay Area Governments adopted Taming Natural Disasters: A Multi-Jurisdictional Local Government Hazard Mitigation Plan for the San Francisco Bay Area. This plan addresses methods to mitigate the risk from several types of hazards on eight commitment areas (infrastructure, health, housing, economy, government services, education, environment, and land use). The 2005 plan was updated in 2010 with the participation of 116 cities, counties, and special districts. The update was supported by numerous regional and sub-regional workshops, forums, and public outreach campaigns, and further enhanced both the consistency in approach to hazard mitigation planning and the participation rate of local jurisdictions (Association of Bay Area Governments 2010).

Santa Clara County Local Hazard Mitigation Plan (LHMP): In response to the Multi-Jurisdictional Local Government Hazard Mitigation Plan for the San Francisco Bay Area, the Association of Bay Area Governments counties, including Santa Clara County, developed an LHMP as an annex to the

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Association of Bay Area Governments plan. The LHMP was last updated in 2017 and a 2022 update is currently under way with a renaming of the plan to Multi-Jurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan (MJHMP) per new guidance from FEMA (Santa Clara County 2017). Many of the mitigation strategies identified in the plan have been, or can be, used in CWPPs, and the responsible entities are also identified. Items include ensuring reliable sources of water for existing and new developments, developing defensible space programs, providing adequate access roads that meet California Fire Code standards, tying public education on defensible space with a defensible space ordinance and field enforcement, adopting or amending California Building and Fire Codes, and expanding VMPs (Santa Clara County 2017).

The MJHMP is being revised concurrently with this planning effort and alignment between these efforts has been a goal of the CWPP Planning Team.

City General Plans and city LHMPs: General Plans exist for cities throughout Santa Clara County.

These Plans provide a general overview of wildfire hazard in terms of emergency response and direction for local and county hazard planning. They contain information on the local wildfire situation and associated hazards, although the level of detail varies among cities. The Los Gatos 2021 General Plan, for example, lists wildfire-related goals in its Safety Element that are associated with planning for both fire safety and fire risk reduction. These, in turn, are further developed into general policies and actions (Town of Los Gatos 2021). Cities within Santa Clara County also have LHMPs, which are annexes to the County’s LHMP. The various city LHMPs, following a standard template, discuss the local nature of various hazards, values at risk from these hazards, and actions to take to mitigate this risk.

Santa Clara County Department of Parks and Recreation 2018 Strategic Plan: The department’s mission is to “Provide, protect, and preserve regional parklands for the enjoyment, education and inspiration of this and future generations.” (Santa Clara County 2018b). The 2018 SCC Department of Parks and Recreation Strategic Plan includes the planning process, a needs assessment, goals & strategies, an action plan with 66 items, and fiscal planning for a sustainable future; the Department has been funded by the Park Charter Fund since 1972 (Santa Clara County 2018b).

Santa Clara Valley Habitat Plan: The Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency is responsible for administering and implementing the Santa Clara Valley Habitat Plan, a federally approved Habitat Conservation Plan and state approved Natural Communities Conservation Plan. Chapter 3 in the Habitat Plan provides for the protection and recovery of 18 plant and animal species of special conservation concern e.g., species listed by the federal or state government as threatened or endangered. In depth conservation strategies are provided in chapter 5 such as the creation of reserve units with corresponding management plans that will outline objectives contributing to “reducing the fuel load of the reserve so that the risk to biological resources of catastrophic wildfire is at an acceptable level and the risk to adjacent urban areas is minimized”. Each reserve unit management plan will include a section on fire management that will include a description of “minimum impact suppression techniques” to accomplish fire management objectives. The jurisdictions participating in the Habitat Plan include the cities of Gilroy, Morgan Hill and San Jose, Santa Clara County, the Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority and the Santa Clara Valley Water District (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

Santa Clara County Wildfire Preparedness Guide: In 2021 The Santa Clara County Office of Emergency Management created a wildfire preparedness guide to be hosted on the County website.

The Guide is designed to provide residents and visitors with information on preparing for wildfires.

Preparedness resources include home hardening and defensible space, tips to strengthen financial capabilities, evacuation planning, guidance on staying safe during a wildfire and returning home after a wildfire. The guide also outlines resources for livestock owners, hazardous waste and debris management, and wildfire recovery. Several links, brochures, and a FAQ are available to help with questions regarding wildfire preparedness and recovery.

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DRAFT Unincorporated Santa Clara County Climate Vulnerability Assessment: The Santa Clara County Department of Planning and Development is currently preparing an assessment on various climate induced hazards that affect the residents and environment throughout Santa Clara County.

The bulk of the plan is dedicated to describing local climate trends and how changes in temperature, precipitation, and vegetation when paired with wildfire hazards can contribute to increased wildfire danger. Critical data on vulnerable populations is included along with detailed health impacts as a result of exposure to wildfire hazards. Also included are narratives describing the direct and indirect impacts of wildfire on major community elements such as transportation systems, lifeline utility systems, economic elements, and natural resource areas. This document will inform the Safety Element update of the General Plan. The document was in drafting stages during the CWPP development and therefore content may be revised.

State
Strategic Fire Plan for California: In 2018, CAL FIRE, along with the State Board of Forestry and Fire Protection, developed the Strategic Fire Plan for California (CAL FIRE 2018). The plan was developed to create a more wildfire resistant environment and community, to increase the understanding of wildfires, and increase cooperation amongst local, state, federal, tribal, and private partnerships. Goals outlined within the plan include identifying natural resources at risk, integrating fire and fuels management tactics with landowners, and implementing post-fire assessments and programs (CAL FIRE 2018).

California State Hazard Mitigation Plan: In 2018 the CA OES released the latest California State Hazard Mitigation Plan. The intention of the plan was to provide a current update of all past and potential hazards and disasters within California and outline mitigation strategies, risk reduction methods, goals, objectives, strategies, and priorities (CA OES 2018). Mitigation strategies recommended include strengthening interagency coordination, incorporating climate change into future planning efforts, and establishing a mitigation registry (CA OES 2018).

Fire Hazard Planning Technical Advisory: In 2022, the California Office of Planning and Research updated the Fire Hazard Planning Technical Advisory. The goal of the guide is to provide a framework for planners and decision makers in addressing hazards, increasing resilience, and reducing risks associated with fire. This guide provides a brief history of fire in the state, impacts to communities, and implications of climate change as well as describes several local, state, and federal wildfire policies and regulations to inform on required planning elements and available resources. This regulatory overview sets the stage for the fire hazard planning guidance chapter, which has recommendations regarding the integration of fire hazard specific elements into general plans. This guide also contains directions to align hazard plans with broader plans and connect fire hazard planning to relevant matters such as climate adaptation (CA GOPR 2022a).

Wildland Urban Interface Planning Guide: In 2022, in accordance with the requirements of AB 75, the California Governor’s Office of Planning and Research, with the Community Wildfire Planning Center and CAL FIRE, created the WUI planning guide to provide recommendations and examples to aid communities in planning for living in the WUI (CA GOPR 2022a). The guide serves as a supplement to the Fire Hazard Planning Technical Advisory and discusses several plan categories, detailing their respective purpose, and how they relate to WUI planning. Some plan types referenced include, general, hazard, climate, and wildfire plans. The regulation section of the guide provides required and recommended codes for resilient WUI planning and rationale for how these measures promote a fire safe community. Additional tools and programs that enhance community resilience are detailed in the plan (CA GOPR 2022a).

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California Cooperative Forest Management Plan: In 2020 the California Cooperative Forest Management Plan was developed to be used by CAL FIRE, the USFS, and the Natural Resources Conservation Service. This plan is more of a template for fire management plans. The plan outlines topics that should be discussed while planning for fires, such as road systems, property history and conditions, wildlife, water resources, and others (CAL FIRE 2020b).

California’s Forests and Rangelands 2017 Assessment: In 2017, CAL FIRE published California’s Forests and Rangelands 2017 Assessment. CAL FIRE’s Fire and Resource Assessment Program evaluates the amount and size of California’s forests and rangelands and analyzes their conditions to establish management and regulatory guidelines. The assessment is used to delineate priority landscapes that aid in focusing investments and other programs to ameliorate issues. The goal of the assessment is to meet both state and federal mandates for natural resource inventories and planning (CAL FIRE 2018a).

Community Wildfire Prevention & Mitigation Report: In 2019 CAL FIRE published the Community Wildfire Prevention & Mitigation Report in response to Executive Order N-05-19, which directs CAL FIRE and other state agencies to recommend administrative, regulatory, and policy changes to prevent and mitigate wildfires. The order stresses taking necessary actions to protect vulnerable populations and to identify backlogs in fuels treatments projects. CAL FIRE identified 35 priority projects that could be implemented right away to reduce public safety risk for over 200 communities. Potential projects included removal of dead trees, vegetation clearing, creation of ingress and egress paths, and creation of fuel breaks and community defensible spaces (CAL FIRE 2019a).

California’s Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan: In 2021 the California Forest Management Task Force (CA FMTF) developed California’s Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan (CA FMTF 2021). The purpose of the plan was to sustain economic strength of the forests, improve forest health and resilience, and increase the level of fire safety within communities. The plan is broken up into four major goals and strategies to achieve said goals (CA FMTF 2021). The goals include increasing the pace and scale of forest health projects, strengthening the protection of communities, managing the forest to achieve the state’s economic and environmental goals, and driving innovation while measuring progress.

Strategies for increasing community fire safety include increasing fuel breaks, creating fire-safe roadways, and supporting community risk reduction (CA FMTF 2021).

Vegetation Management Program: In addition to the Strategic Fire Plan, CAL FIRE operates a VMP that focuses on addressing resource management and wildfire fuel hazards within SRA lands (CAL FIRE 2022e). The program has three management objectives with various sub-goals. The management objectives are the reduction of conflagration of fires, optimization of soil and water productivity, and the protection and improvement of intrinsic floral and faunal species (CAL FIRE 2022e).

California Vegetation Treatment Program: In addition to planning documents, the State of California operates the California Vegetation Treatment Program (CalVTP). This program was developed by the Board of Forestry and Fire Protection to create healthy fire regimes, reduce hazardous vegetation that increases wildfire risk, and reduce risk within communities. Prescribed burning, prescribed herbivory, herbicides, mechanical treatments, and manual treatments are used for vegetation management.

In addition, you can visit the CalVTP Implementation Database to find current and approved projects.

To learn more about this program, visit the following URL: https://bof.fire.ca.gov/projects-andprograms/calvtp/ Safer from Wildfire Initiative: This partnership program was established to increase home hardening and defensible space efforts on homes that were not built to current CAL FIRE Standards. The program was developed in a partnership with the CA OES, Planning and Research, Department of Insurance,

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Public Utilities Commission, and CAL FIRE to create pathways for more accessible home insurance by requiring insurers to reward safety and mitigation actions (CDI 2023b). The program works within the three mitigation topics of protecting the structure, protecting the surroundings, and working as a community to identify actionable steps to improving community resilience in a cost-effective way. Each topic has specific measures, such as upgrading to ember resistant vents, clearing under deck vegetation, or working as a community to achieve a Firewise rating (CDI 2023b). The list of actions creates consistency in home hardening. This program has been used to negotiate insurance discounts for individuals and communities based on mitigation achievements at each level. For example, State Farm offers a discount to communities that achieve a Firewise Community rating (CDI 2023b). More information about the Safer from Wildfires initiative and currently available insurance discounts are available at the following URL: https://www.insurance.ca.gov/01-consumers/200-wrr/saferfromwildfires.cfm Federal
The National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy: The Strategy outlines a holistic approach to the future of wildfire management, with the goal of managing forests to coexist with wildland fire but containing incidents when necessary. The Strategy maintains that this goal will be achieved by restoring and maintaining landscapes, developing fire-adapted communities, and maintaining sufficient wildfire response capabilities (Forests and Rangelands 2021).

A Collaborative Approach for Reducing Wildland Fire Risks to Communities and the Environment:

A 10-year Implementation Strategy: This Plan was most recently updated in 2006 and focuses on using a collaborative framework for restoring fire-adapted ecosystems, reducing hazardous fuels, mitigating risks to communities, providing economic benefits, and improving fire prevention and suppression strategies. The Plan also emphasizes information sharing, monitoring of accomplishments and forest conditions, a long-term commitment to maintaining the essential resources for implementation, a landscape-level vision for restoration of fire-adapted ecosystems, the importance of using fire as a management tool, and continued improvements to collaboration efforts (Forests and Rangelands 2006).

National Fire Plan: The National Fire Plan (Managing the Impact of Wildfires on Communities and the Environment) was implemented by the U.S. Department of the Interior and the USFS in 2000. The Plan was established to develop a collaborative approach among various governmental agencies to actively respond to severe wildland fires and ensure sufficient firefighting capacity for the future. Focuses of the Plan are on firefighting preparedness and accountability, forest restoration, hazardous fuels reduction, community assistance, and research (Forests and Rangelands 2000).

Bureau of Land Management: The BLM does not have a general fire management plan; however, the BLM has a fire management program in California and is a member of the California Forest Management Task Force (BLM 2022a; California Wildfire and Forest Management Task Force 2023). The BLM also collaborates with several federal, state, and local organizations to develop and implement wildland fire programs. For instance, the BLM’s fuels management program directs a wide range of active management vegetation treatments using mechanical, biological, and chemical tools, and prescribed fire.

The program consists of creating fuel breaks, reducing fuel loads, reducing fire risk near communities, targeted grazing, and herbicide to break fire-grass cycles. Fuels treatments are planned and implemented jointly with other BLM programs, and with federal, state, local, and non-governmental collaborators (BLM 2022b). Within Santa Clara County, the BLM manages a patchwork of small land parcels in the Diablo Range.

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PUBLIC LAND MANAGEMENT

LAND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Forest managers in the region are addressing land management objectives through the use of prescribed fire, mechanical, and manual treatments to promote more resilient forest lands. Private, state, and federal lands are interspersed creating a matrix of land ownership, which is often a hurdle to implementation of landscape level treatments. By working with private landowners, forest managers are enhancing landscape-scale efforts to create more resilient forest communities.

Local Land
Santa Clara County Department of Parks and Recreation
The Santa Clara County Department of Parks and Recreation manages 52,000 acres of County Park lands in 28 different parks comprising 27% of the open space within Santa Clara County. The Department uses the 2018 Santa Clara County Strategic Plan as a guiding land management document (Santa Clara County 2018b). A key wildfire mitigation item in the plan’s action list is action item number 35 which directs the preparation and execution of Natural Resource Management and Grazing Management plans.

These guiding documents will help facilitate better management of annual grasslands, serpentine habitats, oak woodlands, forests, and aquatic habitats. This will create healthier vegetation communities with greater resilience to wildfire. Additionally, the County has stressed that all natural resource management actions should align with the objectives and strategies of the Valley Habitat Plan (Santa Clara County 2018b).

Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency
The Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency uses the 2012 Santa Clara Valley Habitat Plan as a guiding document. The Agency has prepared guidelines for fuel treatments that incorporate the Habitat Plan’s requirements for protecting covered habitats and species (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

The guidelines will be used to plan fuel treatments within conservation reserves. They may also be used to plan fuel treatments outside of reserves or to place conditions on discretionary projects if fuel reduction is proposed as part of the project. The following projects may be subject to the permit requirements of the Habitat Plan:
• Land development within the Habitat Plan boundaries requiring discretionary approval from participating jurisdictions.
• Vegetation management projects subject to environmental analysis pursuant to the CEQA. • Vegetation management is covered activity under the Habitat Plan such as management within county parks and land managed by the Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority.

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Figure 1A.2. Santa Clara Valley Habitat Plan permit area.

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Fuel treatments proposed by the CWPP may be subject to the Habitat Plan permit requirements if they are funded by public agencies such as CAL FIRE or otherwise require discretionary permits from participating jurisdictions. Permits are required for discretionary projects affecting habitat and species covered by the Habitat Plan. Fees are collected to compensate for impacts on covered species and habitats. The fees in turn, are used to acquire properties with equivalent habitat to compensate for the losses. These properties become part of the conservation reserve system that will eventually encompass over 46,000 acres of oak woodland, serpentine grassland, annual grassland and other habitat types (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012). It is the intent of this CWPP that if and when fuel treatments are planned within the conservation plan area and/or within habitats or potentially affecting species covered by the Habitat Plan that those treatments will conform to the degree possible to the recommendations of the Habitat Agency’s guidelines (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

Midpeninsula Regional Open Space Authority (Midpen)
Midpen reduces wildland fire severity and risk throughout the Santa Cruz Mountains by managing vegetation in preserves with a focus on ecological health and wildland fire resilience. “Wildland fire prevention, preparation and response are part of Midpen's ongoing land stewardship” (Midpen 2021a).

Wildland Fire Resiliency
In 2021 Midpen’s Wildland Fire Resiliency Program was approved. This program aims to increase vegetation management actions by six-fold over the course of 10 years (Midpen 2021a).

Goals and Objectives:
• Promote healthy, resilient, fire-adapted ecosystems
• Reduce wildland fire risk
• Facilitate the response of fire agencies
The program outlines the creation of a Vegetation Management Plan (Midpen 2021b) that will expand management of environmentally sensitive vegetation into new areas of Midpen preserves for the purpose of preserving ecological health and public safety. Preserve maps will be updated and expanded to provide critical information to fire agencies responding to wildland fire events, including water resources, roads and gates, and sensitive natural and cultural resources. A monitoring plan will also be developed for the purpose of collecting scientific data to ensure the program is adaptable and meets goals. Finally, in partnership with CAL FIRE, Midpen will be reintroducing prescribed fire as a land management tool in 2023.

Watch a presentation on the prescribed fire aspect of the program from a July 2022 virtual community open house event: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E3LRwfdGjr Current Projects
• Los Gatos Creek Watershed Forest Health Project: The project will include removing and reducing vegetation to meet forest health and wildfire fuel management goals. Work may involve using heavy machinery, including, but not limited to, masticators, mowers, chainsaws, and woodchippers.

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• Chamise Trail Shaded Fuel Break: Work is planned along the Chamise Trail from Rhus Ridge junction to Ravensbury junction and will generally follow close to the ridge line where fuel breaks are most effective to reduce heavy fuel loads of brush, small trees, and accumulated, dead vegetation.

Ongoing Wildland Fire Prevention and Response
• Maintaining hundreds of miles of fuel breaks and fire roads throughout our preserves, some of which are used as emergency ingress and egress routes for neighbors. • Annually training Midpen field staff as fire first responders • Outfitting ranger trucks with water pumpers during fire season • Reducing vegetation using conservation grazing on more than 6,500 acres on the San Mateo County Coast
• Enforcing regulations against smoking, fires and guns in the preserves Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority
Tribal Partnerships
The Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority is partnering with local Tribes to reconnect them with their ancestral and traditional lands, to promote their role as partners in land stewardship, and to find shared solutions to today's conservation challenges for future generations. The Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority recognizes that the lands of the Santa Clara Valley along with the Santa Cruz and Diablo Range Mountains are the ancestral and unceded territories of the Awaswas-, Chochenyo-, Mutsun-, Tamien, and Yokuts-speaking peoples. Tribal partners are currently engaged in active research and conservation work. Tribes offer traditional ecological knowledge that contributes to sustainable managing open spaces and addressing climate challenges such as fire (Open Space Authority 2023).

The Goals of the Open Space Authority Tribal Partnership are as follows:
• Acknowledge and learn from the past, and listen to current and future Indigenous voices and perspectives
• Make sure Tribal partners have a voice in public processes that affect open spaces within the Authority's jurisdiction
• Provide Tribes with access to culturally significant lands • Identify opportunities to support Tribal stewardship of these lands in the future • Amplify the voices of Indigenous Peoples and their role as leaders in conservation in our region and the Bay Area
State Land
California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) A part of CAL FIRE’s mission is protecting California’s resources, including the health of the state’s woodlands and forests. Charged with protecting the forest resources of all the wildland areas of California that are not under federal jurisdiction is the Board of Forestry and Fire Protection, a

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government-appointed body within CAL FIRE. It is responsible for developing the general forest policy of the state, determining the guidance policies of CAL FIRE, and representing the state’s interest in federal forestland in California. Together, the Board and the Department work to carry out the California Legislature’s mandate to protect and enhance the state’s unique forest and wildland resources.

State Responsibility Area (SRA) is a legal term defining the area where the State has financial responsibility for the prevention and suppression of wildfire. The majority of Santa Clara County (67.5%) is within SRAs (CAL FIRE 2022h).

In California, CAL FIRE maintains fire hazard severity zone (FHSZ) data for the entire state. There are three classes of fire hazard severity ratings within FHSZs: moderate, high, and very high (CA GOPR 2020). Fire hazard severity zones are defined based on vegetation, topography, and weather, and represent the probability of the area burning and potential fire behavior in the area. A significant portion of Santa Clara County falls under high and very high FHSZs. FHSZs within the County are contained in two distinct areas. The first is in the northern and eastern foothills of the Santa Cruz mountains where fire hazard is very high from the Santa Clara Valley to the Santa Cruz County border in the Santa Cruz Mountains. Continuing, fire hazard severity is high to very high from Stevens Creek Park south of San Jose to the unincorporated lands immediately west of Gilroy. The second area of very high FHSZ within the county is located along and throughout the Diablo Hills; fire hazard severity becomes less in areas bordering the valley floor.

CAL FIRE 2019 Strategic Plan: The 2019 Strategic Plan, a guiding document in regard to land management strategies, states that a key objective of CAL FIRE is to “Expand forestry and fire prevention through effective natural resource management programs, education, inspections, and land use planning” (CAL FIRE 2019b). The following land management action items are outlined in the Strategic Plan:
• Increase by 20% the acreage of projects implemented under the California Forest Improvement Program.
• Implement fuels reduction projects on at least 50,000 acres annually. • Continue to work with the Stewardship Council, conservation easement holder designees, other collaborators, and stakeholders to complete the successful donation and transfer of designated watershed lands to CAL FIRE for management as Demonstration State Forests.

Vegetation Management Program (VMP): The VMP is a cost sharing program that allows private landowners to enter a contract with CAL FIRE to use prescribed fire and mechanical treatments to accomplish management goals. The program utilizes prescribed fire and mechanical treatments for managing wildland fire fuel hazards and other resource management issues regarding vegetation on SRA lands. The program has treated about 25,000 acres per year since 1982 (CAL FIRE 2022e).

The goal of the program is to reduce the change of large, damaging wildfires in California. To accomplish this the Board of Forestry and Fire Protection has established 3 management objectives:
• Reduction of conflagration fires.
• Optimization of soil and water productivity.
• Protection and improvement of intrinsic floral and faunal values.

Additionally, the VMP also aims to increase water quantity and maintain water quality in managed watersheds, protect and improve soil productivity, propagate rare or endangered fire adapted plant species, and decrease the risk to firefighters and other responders during wildland fires.

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The laws enacted in support of this program are found in Title 14, California Code of Regulations, Chapter 9.8 Chaparral Management, Sections 1560 to 1569.6. The program is further defined in the Public Resources Code Sections 4461 to 4473, 4475 to 4480 and 4491 to 4494 (CAL FIRE 2022e).

California Department of Fish and Wildlife Lands
The CDFW manages well over 1 million acres of fish and wildlife habitat across 749 properties throughout California. These properties serve as habitat for a great diversity of fish, wildlife, and plant species and include varied habitats from major ecosystems in the state. Furthermore, various private land conservation programs assist landowners with the management of riparian environments, native grasslands, wetlands, and wildlife-friendly farmlands (CDFW 2023).

In 2021, the CDFW initiated the largest wildfire protection and resiliency endeavor in its history, with a focus to improve wildfire protection and resiliency in most of its ecological reserves, wildlife areas, and surrounding communities. Methods employed by the CDFW to accomplish its wildfire resiliency goals include the installation of fire breaks, brush removal, vegetation thinning, utilizing livestock grazing, and controlled burns (CDFW 2021a).

Federal Land
Bureau of Reclamation
Reclamation Manual – Directives and Standards 2010 (D&S) Wildland Fire Management (WFM): The purpose of the WFM Directives and Standards is to provide direction for implementing and managing the Bureau of Reclamation’s WFM Program in compliance with existing law and Department of the Interior requirements. The Bureau of Reclamation outlines WFM activity standards in compliance with the Department of the Interior standards on fuels management, burned area rehabilitation, prescribed fire, and wildfire suppression work. The Bureau of Reclamation outlines the following activities in their WFM (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 2010):
• Environmental Compliance - Reclamation will complete and submit the necessary National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) documentation and verify compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (NHPA)
• Fuels Management - Reclamation will establish fuels management programs, especially in WUI areas and near at-risk Reclamation facilities.
• Post-Fire Recovery - Associated activities are intended to protect and sustain ecosystems, public health and safety, community infrastructures, and operational and water storage/conveyance facilities or features.
• Prescribed Fire Activities - All prescribed fire planning, preparation, and implementation will adhere to the Department’s approved standards. No prescribed fire ignition will be undertaken without an approved burn plan
• Wildfire Response Strategies and Suppression – Reclamation will establish agreements or contracts with federal agencies, non-federal land management entities, or other wildland firefighting organizations for wildfire response strategies and suppression on Reclamation land.

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U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
The USFWS has three primary areas of focus regarding fire management strategies, including: fuels management, wildfire management, and wildfire prevention. The USFWS aims to carryout out fire management and land improvements in a safe a cost-effective manner to benefit both people and the landscapes. This will be achieved through the prioritization of fuel management programs such as prescribed burns, fuel treatment projects, maintaining previous projects, leveraging funding, and promoting safety and security.

Private Land
Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E)
PG&E launched their Community Wildfire Safety Program in 2018 to help keep customers and communities safe (PG&E 2023). They have recognized that wildfire risk is increasing in California and are working to make their system safer.

PG&E is taking action on the following items:
• Underground powerlines: powerlines are being moved underground in high fire-threat areas. • Electric grid: electric systems are being made safer with stronger poles and covered powerlines. • Enhancing powerline safety settings: power lines turn off within one-tenth of a second if a problem is detected.
• Public safety power shutoff (PSPS): A PSPS follows a detailed stepwise process. Once severe weather is forecasted, addresses that may be affected by a power shutoff will be notified.

Warning notifications are issued 1 to 2 days before power is shut off. Once power is shut off, “power is off” notifications will be sent 24 hours per day. After severe weather passes a weather “all-clear” notification is issued closely followed by an estimated restoration notification. Finally, customers will be notified once power is restored.
• Installing microgrids: distribution microgrids can safely power some areas during a PSPS event.

Distribution microgrids are used to power central community corridors, gas stations, schools, and grocery stores. These microgrids are used in targeted areas that are served by underground power lines, outside of high fire-threat areas, and outside of the PSPS weather footprint. • Vegetation management: PG&E is conducting enhanced vegetation safety work in High FireThreat District, which are designated by the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC).

The goal of our Enhanced Vegetation Management (EVM) Program is to keep trees, limbs, and branches away from powerlines and electric equipment.

Stewardship Agreements
In 2020, California and the federal government signed an agreement of the shared stewardship for California forests and rangelands. The agreement sets many goals for the state of California and the federal government to accomplish together (CA Office of the Governor 2020).These goals include treating at least 1 million acres of California lands per year to reduce the risk of wildfires, developing a 20-year cooperative forest management plan which will outline projects and priorities, encouraging and increasing the use of sustainable land management practices such as prescribed fire, increase the forest management workforce and in turn increase the pace and scale of forest management, and prioritizing

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forest health benefits such as carbon sequestration and healthy watersheds. Funding for this agreement will be provided from the Great American Outdoors Act (CA Office of the Governor 2020).

The shared stewardship agreement includes a commitment to coordinate and share tools, processes, and innovative approaches in respect to fire management. You can find the stewardship agreement here:
https://www.gov.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/8.12.20-CA-Shared-Stewardship-MOU.pdf

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APPENDIX B:

Community Background and Resources

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CONTENTS
Location and Geography .................................................................................................................... B-1 Topography .................................................................................................................................. B-2 Roads and Transportation ........................................................................................................... B-2 Water Availability and Supply ...................................................................................................... B-4 Population .................................................................................................................................... B-6 Recreation.................................................................................................................................... B-8 Wildlife........................................................................................................................................ B-10 Forest Health Considerations ........................................................................................................... B-11 Insects........................................................................................................................................ B-11 Diseases .................................................................................................................................... B-12 Environmental Challenges................................................................................................................ B-12 Drought and Climate .................................................................................................................. B-12 Tree Mortality ............................................................................................................................. B-13 Ecosystem Services ......................................................................................................................... B-15 Fire Response Capabilities............................................................................................................... B-17 Local Response ......................................................................................................................... B-18 State Response.......................................................................................................................... B-23 Federal Response...................................................................................................................... B-24 Mutual Aid .................................................................................................................................. B-26 Evacuation Resources ............................................................................................................... B-26 Public Education and Outreach Programs ....................................................................................... B-32 Local and State Programs ......................................................................................................... B-32 National Programs ..................................................................................................................... B-34 Figures
Figure B.1. Photograph showing a winding rural road with blind turns..................................................... B-3 Figure B.2. A washed-out road (due to heavy rain and snow storms) within a residential community. ... B-4 Figure B.3. A view of a partially filled Alamitos Pond at Valley Water headquarters on Almaden Expressway (Source: Valley Water 1/23/23). .............................................................................. B-6 Figure B.4. Slides from a promotional film created by a real estate company for the Redwood Estates in 1926 (Source: YouTube)............................................................................................. B-7 Figure B.5. Fire agency service areas. ................................................................................................... B-17 Figure B.6. Map of suppression difficulty index. ..................................................................................... B-21 Figure B.7. Fire station service areas. .................................................................................................... B-22 Figure B.8. Fire responsibility areas and fire station locations. .............................................................. B-25 Figure B.9. Example of a narrow mountain community road.................................................................. B-30 Figure B.10 Some areas have been identified as having extremely limited ingress and egress, and in an emergency, residents may need to evacuate through locked gates................................. B-31

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Tables
Table B.1. Breakdown of Land Ownership in Santa Clara County........................................................... B-1

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LOCATION AND GEOGRAPHY
Santa Clara County encompasses 835,449 acres (1,305 square miles) and is located at the southern end of the San Francisco Bay (Santa Clara County 2016). Santa Clara County borders six other California counties: San Mateo, Alameda, Stanislaus, Merced, San Benito, and Santa Cruz. The Santa Clara Valley is generally divided into two geographic regions, the North Valley and the South Valley.

The predominantly urban North Valley houses approximately 90% of the county’s residents and 13 of its 15 cities (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012). The South Valley is primarily rural, except for Morgan Hill, Gilroy, San Martin (unincorporated community), and scattered low-density residential areas.

Until the mid-twentieth century, orchards and other agriculture dominated the area, but in recent decades the valley has been transformed into “Silicon Valley,” a global center for high-tech development resulting from the 1990s internet boom. Since that time the county has seen extensive population growth, focused mostly within the North Valley cities of Campbell, Cupertino, Los Altos, Los Altos Hills, Los Gatos, Milpitas, Monte Sereno, Mountain View, Palo Alto, Santa Clara, Saratoga, and Sunnyvale; nearly 95% of the county population lives in its cities (Santa Clara Local Agency Formation Commission [LAFC] 2019).

The county has the largest population of any of the nine Bay Area counties, and it provides more than 25% of all jobs in the Bay Area (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

Although the population is expected to continue to grow, the rate of growth is projected to slow (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012). Recognizing the population boom in the 1970s, Santa Clara County implemented policies to help curtail potential sprawl and protect the county’s natural resources. Policies were enacted that focused growth inside of cities, controlling sprawl into unincorporated areas of the county. At the same time, the Midpen, Santa Clara County Parks, and the Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority began acquiring undeveloped land in the foothills for a permanent greenbelt of wildlands.

Santa Clara County’s General Plan includes many measures to address land use issues involving the rural unincorporated areas of the county over which Santa Clara County has direct land use authority.

Policy direction is to maintain the scenic rural character of these areas and to promote conservation and productive use of their natural resources for agriculture, ranching, watershed, public recreation, and wildlife habitat (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

The county has a rich culture and many community facilities and attractions that serve the residents and attract visitors, including museums and art galleries, performing arts venues, educational facilities, cultural and recreational opportunities, vineyards, orchards, and abundant natural resources.

Table B.1. Breakdown of Land Ownership in Santa Clara County Landowner  Portion of Santa Clara County
Private 73.66%
Local Government 15.20%
CDPR 7.20%
Other State Lands 1.33%
CDFW 1.09%
USFWS 0.96%
Non-Profit Conservancies and Trusts 0.39%
BLM 0.17%

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Landowner  Portion of Santa Clara County
Department of Defense 0.01%
Bureau of Reclamation 0.00%

TOPOGRAPHY
Santa Clara County encompasses the fertile Santa Clara Valley, which runs from south to north and contains large swathes of agricultural and urbanized land. The valley is split into two regions, the North Valley and the South Valley. The North Valley is adjacent to San Francisco Bay and contains braided creeks and stream channels that spill into several tidal wetlands, salt marshes, and abandoned salt ponds. The South Valley is slightly higher in elevation at approximately 350 feet above sea level and contains many agricultural lands, which are flanked by deep narrow lakes and reservoirs. The valley is approximately 93 miles long. At its widest in the north, the Santa Clara Valley is about 11 miles wide; at its narrowest in the south, the valley is about 2.5 miles wide. A low saddle near the middle of the valley represents the watershed divide between the Coyote Valley Watershed with its pour point located in San Francisco Bay and several watersheds to the south in which streams flow southward ultimately terminating in Monterey Bay (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

The Santa Clara Valley is surrounded by the rolling Diablo hills to the east and the Santa Cruz Mountains to the west. The Santa Cruz Mountains rise to a maximum elevation of 4,000 feet and are characterized by steep and rugged country that is carved by deep draws and drainages. The foothills of these mountains roll gently downslope to the alluvial fan geomorphology of the flatter valley below. The Diablo Mountain range contains several high points, ranging from 2,500 feet to the highest peak of Mt. Hamilton at 4,213 feet tall. The Diablo Range is skirted by dissected hills, but the interior of the range still contains alpine features like those of the Santa Cruz mountains. The two mountain ranges in Santa Clara County greatly influence diurnal and orographic winds and dictate precipitation distribution from incoming moisture sourced from the nearby Pacific Ocean to the west (Santa Clara Valley Habitat Agency 2012).

ROADS AND TRANSPORTATION
As outlined in the Santa Clara County General Plan, an adequate transportation system is essential to the county’s economy, environment, and overall quality of life (Santa Clara County 1994). The Transportation section of the General Plan provides measures to reduce congestion in the county, improve air quality, encourage compact urban development, and improve social and economic well-being. Specific to the CWPP, roads and transportation are important for evacuation purposes and emergency response, providing ingress and egress to emergency responders. Conversely, they also contribute to patterns of ignition, by bringing people in contact with the wildlands. Santa Clara County has updated the Circulation and Mobility Element of the General Plan, which will provide updates and policies to support and implement road improvements to the county’s expressways and unincorporated road system. These updates were enacted to create consistency with the California Streets Act of 2008. Santa Clara County’s main airport is Norman Y. Mineta San Jose International Airport with numerous international connections.

Santa Clara Train Station is served by Caltrans and provides service throughout Santa Clara Valley and the Bay Area. The San Jose Diridon Station is the transit hub for Santa Clara County/Silicon Valley.

This station serves Altamont Commuter Express (ACE), Amtrak Capitol Corridor, Amtrak Coast Starlight, VTA, Light Rail, Highway 17 Express) and Monterey-San Jose Express. The Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority operates the regional light rail system connecting towns throughout the valley.

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Santa Clara County has an extensive freeway system and separate expressways. The expressways are maintained as county roads, not by Caltrans. The major state highways in the county are U.S. Route 101 that runs through the center of the valley, State Route 17 that runs from San Jose through the Santa Cruz Mountains to Santa Cruz, Interstate 280 that connects San Jose to San Francisco, Interstate 880 that connects San Jose with Oakland to the north, Interstate 680 that connects San Jose to communities to the northeast and State Route 85 (West Valley Freeway) that connects south San Jose to Mountain View and all the West Valley cities.

Many arterial roads and highways are critical to transportation in the WUI. These include Skyline/Highway 35, Summit Road, Junipero Serra Blvd/Foothill Expressway, Blossom Hill Road, Almaden Road, Old Monterey Highway, Page Mill Road, Black Road, Stevens Canyon Road, Highway 9, Highway 17, Old Santa Cruz Highway, Watsonville Road, Hecker Pass/Highway 152 West, Pacheco Pass/Highway 152 East, and Mt. Hamilton Road/Highway 130. Many subdivisions in the county are located within a private road network. Maintenance of these private roads is a concern for emergency response because poorly maintained roads, steep grades, and unsurfaced routes may be inaccessible to some emergency apparatuses. Some of these communities have a road committee that provides oversight of road conditions.

Rural areas such as Croy and in the Hamilton Range have critical access routes for residents that are on private land and maintenance and improvements are the responsibility of the landowner. Inholdings with access easements on these roads may have limited influence on improving road conditions or opening locked gates for alternate escape routes if no road association or agreement exists.

Figure B.1. Photograph showing a winding rural road with blind turns.

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Figure B.2. A washed-out road (due to heavy rain and snow storms) within a residential community.

WATER AVAILABILITY AND SUPPLY
Water supply is variable around the county and may be provided by hydrants, wells, cisterns, and reservoirs. However, many fire planning documents developed by various entities in the county on the wildfire issue commonly cite water availability as a concern. The 2010 Multi-Jurisdictional Local Hazard Mitigation Plan for the San Francisco Bay Area, for example, calls for the development of “a coordinated approach between fire jurisdictions and water supply agencies to identify needed improvements to the water distribution system, initially focusing on areas of highest wildfire hazard” (Association of Bay Area Governments 2010). All new structures in the county are required to have a reliable water supply, whether by a water purveyor or private tanks. According to the Santa Clara County Fire Department, 10 fire hydrants are added to the county network on average each year. The fire department also coordinates with neighboring jurisdictions annually to update fire resource information.

Compatibility of cistern connections to fire apparatuses and vegetation clearance to allow fire apparatus to access cisterns are other common water supply issues. However, as was noted previously, homes are more likely to survive a wildfire due to existing fire-resistant building materials and designs, and vegetation clearance around the dwelling, than by a reliance on suppression resources. However, it must be noted that a lack of access to water supply, and roads that are too narrow to allow transport of water by fire apparatus to structures threatened by wildfire, will complicate the suppression of wildfire and the protection of structures.

The Santa Clara County Operational Area Mitigation Plan identifies water availability in high-risk wildfire areas as a major issue and recognizes climate change as a potential threat to overall water supply within the county. Increased occurrence of drought events leading to lower levels of precipitation could reduce the county’s snowpack runoff and groundwater storage. Rising global atmospheric heating could lead to

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sea level rise and saltwater intrusion into freshwater systems, thus decreasing freshwater supply.

Escalating temperatures may also cause an increase in net evaporation losses from the county’s reservoirs by as much 37 percent (Santa Clara County Office of Emergency Management 2017).

Watersheds
Healthy watersheds consist of the natural land cover that supports and facilitates naturally occurring hydrologic and geomorphic processes (EPA 2022). Additionally, a watershed’s land cover and its hydrologic and geomorphic processes also promote the physical and chemical conditions that are necessary to support the habitat requirements for its native ecological communities. Healthy watersheds typically consist of functioning headwater streams, floodplains, riparian corridors, biotic refugia, instream habitat, biotic communities, and the natural vegetation of the landscape. These healthy watershed components should support the hydrology, sediment transport, fluvial geomorphology, and disturbance regimes that are required to maintain a healthy aquatic ecosystem (EPA 2022). For societal purposes, healthy watersheds provide invaluable ecosystem services, such as clean drinking water and predictable water supplies. Additionally, they also provide invaluable recreation opportunities and can bolster property values (EPA 2022).

Under certain conditions, wildfires can have substantial impacts on the health of a watershed.

For instance, if a watershed experiences a large and unnatural high severity wildfire, watershed health indicators, such as native vegetative land cover, sediment transport, stream flows, and aquatic habitat, can differ dramatically compared to the pre-fire environment. These changes can result in deleterious impacts to watershed health (Wildfire Ready Watersheds 2023). As such, when considering wildfire and watershed planning, it is important to consider the current watershed environment’s health and assess and the potential impacts from wildfire to it.

Reservoirs and Percolation Ponds
Water is a precious resource in the Santa Clara Valley, and systems and infrastructure are in place to protect and maintain water resources, as well to mitigate potential disasters like floods. 50% of the water supplies in Santa Clara County is imported from the San Joaquin Delta and Hetch Hetchy water system.

The other 50% of water supplies comes from local reservoirs and ground water (30%), recycled water (5%), and water conservation (15%) (Valley Water 2023b). Valley Water operates 10 reservoirs throughout the county with a total storage capacity of 170,000 acre-feet. These reservoirs were constructed in the 1930s and 1950s and catch storm runoff that would otherwise flow into the San Francisco Bay. “The reservoirs do also provide incidental flood protection by containing runoff early in the rainfall season, serve recreational needs, and benefit the environment by storing water to maintain flow in the creeks” (Valley Water 2023c). In the event of a watershed wide wildfire, impacts to water infrastructure and resources are possible. Sedimentation of water intake locations can occur and may result in flooding due to blocked drainage pipes.

Percolation ponds are a passive water saving and ground water recharging strategy utilized by Valley Water. Imported water supplies and surplus water in reservoirs are funneled into 102 percolation ponds across the county for the purposes of recharging groundwater and reducing losses to evapotranspiration (Valley Water News 2023). The floor of a percolation pond is made of well-draining substrate suitable for percolating and filtering large quantities of water in groundwater aquifers. Water can be captured and stored during the rainy season to later be used during the summer and under drought conditions.

Sediment and debris can clog percolation ponds (Valley Water News 2023). Severe wildfire can create conditions favorable for mass wasting events, which can inundate waterways with sedimentation, causing

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an extreme increase in turbidity. This can cause issues for percolation ponds as fine sediments can clog drainage pipes and even reduce the effectiveness of percolation.

See the Values at Risk section in Chapter 3 for additional information on water resources.

Figure B.3. A view of a partially filled Alamitos Pond at Valley Water headquarters on Almaden Expressway (Source: Valley Water 1/23/23).

POPULATION
According to census estimates (U.S. Census Bureau 2021), the population of Santa Clara County is 1,885,508 people, with a 5.8% increase in population from 2010 to 2021. Population density is 1,499 persons per square mile. As of 2021, there were an estimated 646,847 households in the county, with an average 2.93 persons per household. Over half (54.4%) of the population aged 25 years or older hold a bachelor’s degree or higher; the tech industry is a considerable employer and draw to the area.

At $140,258, Santa Clara County has a median household income that is among the highest in the nation and nearly twice the national average (U.S. Census Bureau 2021, 2022).

Urban Encroachment
Santa Clara County has been a leader in urban planning for decades, starting with the adoption in the early 1970s of the Countywide Urban Development Policies and the use of city USA boundaries. In the 1990s, Santa Clara County and interested cities worked together to adopt urban growth boundaries for several cities, delineating areas intended for future urbanization (Santa Clara LAFC 2015). Though strong efforts have been implemented by many cities in Santa Clara County to prevent geographic expansion, many have still accommodated substantial residential growth.

The WUI is closely interrelated to urban sprawl, which, according to the American Planning Association, is characterized by low-density residential and commercial development at the urban fringe (Santa Clara

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LAFC 2015). Sprawl is often contrasted with “smart growth,” which is generally defined as focusing moderate to higher density development near existing infrastructure, especially transit. Smart growth has been promoted throughout the county to counter the effects of urban sprawl on the county’s natural resources; this in turn helps to prevent the expansion of the WUI. Because of the economic draw of the Santa Clara Valley, however, reduced expansion has led to housing production being out of pace with the expansive job market. As a result, commuting through the WUI from distant housing in areas such as Santa Cruz County brings wildfire-related concerns with motorist entrapment on highways and increased evacuation concerns due to congestion of arterial roads in the Santa Cruz Mountains.

Conversion of Historical Summer Vacation Homes
A large number of homes, particularly in the Lexington Basin, originated as summer homes that were built in the last century that are now being used as full-time residences. Redwood Estates, for example, was established as a summer home community in the mid-1920s designed for wealthy Bay Area residents to escape to the cooler Santa Cruz Mountains during the summer.

Figure B.4. shows two still captures taken from a real estate promotional video for Redwood Estates filmed in 1926.

Figure B.4. Slides from a promotional film created by a real estate company for the Redwood Estates in 1926 (Source: YouTube).

The implication of this twentieth-century summer home development to wildfire management is that many of these homes were built in the WUI before WUI codes were enacted and many have structural ignitability issues related to construction materials and close adjacency to neighboring properties.

Nonpermitted Homes
In addition, many homes have been built on parcels without planning permission and, as such, are not documented in county assessor records, particularly in remote areas in the Lexington Hills and Croy area.

These inhabited and agricultural/industrial structures are a concern for emergency responders, who may fear for their safety when approaching or entering illegal facilities due to the possibility of poor structural integrity or other hazards presented by unlicensed construction. In addition, the roads leading to these structures are often substandard, unmarked, and blocked by locked gates without fire access keys. All of these factors create serious concerns around the issue of notifying residents and workers and effectively conducting mandatory evacuations.

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RECREATION
Outdoor recreation is extremely popular in the county, with the regional park’s recreation area spanning 52,000 acres of urban and mountain parks, trails, lakes, streams, and open space. Santa Clara County is home to many county and state parks, cultural attractions, and other park spaces attracting thousands of visitors. The county offers a diverse natural environment, with the park system encompassing woodlands in the Diablo Range to wetlands in the San Francisco Bay, the redwoods of the Santa Cruz Mountains.

Camping, swimming, and fishing are popular on public land (Figure B.5) (Santa Clara County Parks 2022). During peak seasons and large events, a significant number of people can congregate in relatively small areas, which results in large populations potentially needing to evacuate should an emergency occur.

Description of the state parks and federally managed recreation sites within the county are listed below.

In addition, there are 28 regional parks within the county. Recreation is crucial to the Santa Clara County economy as it draws in thousands of tourists and recreationalists, and therefore, their spending dollars.

Increased recreation and tourism may also pose as additional risk due to incidental human-caused ignitions in wildland areas.

Castle Rock State Park
Castle Rock State Park encompasses 5,150 acres of wilderness and 34 miles of trails, providing visitors with panoramic views of Monterey Bay from one of the highest ridges of the Santa Cruz mountains.

The park houses a variety of native and non-native vegetative communities, ranging from chaparral and grassland to black oak and mixed evergreen forests. Throughout its rich history, the park has provided spiritual and natural resources for Indigenous communities, logging resources for Gold Fever immigrants, and more recently, arable land for nearby residents. Today the park provides recreational opportunities such as picnics, hiking and backpacking, camping, and rock climbing.

To learn more about Castle Rock State Park, please visit:
https://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/538/files/CastleRockSPFinalWebLayout082117.pdf Henry W. Coe State Park
Henry W. Coe State Park is the largest state park in northern California, with over 87,000 acres of open spaces including 22,000 acres of wilderness areas. The park is found in the Diablo Range east of Morgan Hill deep in the backcountry (CDPR 2023). The terrain of the park is rugged, varied, and beautiful, with lofty ridges and steep canyons. Once the home of Ohlone Indians, the park is now home to a fascinating variety of plants and animals, including the elusive mountain lion. The park is home to a wide variety of trees including giant live oaks, large stands of blue oaks, and gray pines. Ponderosa pine dominates the western ridges while blue oak is the most common and widespread. Pacific madrone, western Sycamore, California bay laurel, and California buckeye are also present (Pine Ridge Association 2023).

The expansive Santa Clara (SCU) Lightning Complex fire burned through a majority of Henry W. Coe State Park lands in 2020. However, East Bay Regional Park District and Save Mount Diablo monitored the fire impact in park district lands and found that the burn was mostly beneficial for the ecology of the region (The Independent 2021).

The park encompasses parts of three watersheds: Orestimba Creek, Coyote Creek, and Pacheco Creek.

All the park's creeks are ephemeral, although ponds and riparian areas can be found year-round depending on annual rainfall. The park contains many water sources in the form of reservoirs that were

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created by former ranch owners. The largest of these is Mississippi Lake, measuring about 32 acres (Pine Ridge Association 2023).

Canada de los Osos Ecological Reserve
Santa Clara County is also home to the Canada de los Osos Ecological Reserve located southeast of Henry W. Coe State Park. The property was designated as an ecological reserve in 2003 and encompasses 5,800 acres of grasslands, oak and montane woodland, chaparral, and riparian habitats.

You can read more about the Canada de los Osos Ecological Reserve here:
(https://wildlife.ca.gov/Lands/Places-to-Visit/Canada-de-los-Osos-ER) Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge
Where Santa Clara County meets the San Francisco Bay, there is the Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge. Established through local activism in 1972 and encompassing 30,000 acres of protected habitat, the landscape provides sanctuary for migratory birds and other endangered species.

In addition to serving wildlife, the refuge provides opportunities for people to enjoy the region's natural beauty.

Regional Parks
The regional parks offering outdoor recreational opportunities for residents and visitors of Santa Clara County include:
• Almaden Quicksilver County Park, San Jose
• Alviso Marina County Park, San Jose
• Anderson Lake County Park, Morgan Hill
• Calero County Park, San Jose
• Chesbro Reservoir County Park, Morgan Hill
• Chitactac-Adams Heritage County Park, Gilroy
• Coyote Creek Parkway, San Jose
• Coyote Lake Harvey Bear Ranch County Park, Gilroy
• Ed R. Levin County Park, Milpitas
• Field Sports Park, San Jose
• Hellyer County Park, San Jose
• Joseph D. Grant County Park, San Jose
• Lexington Reservoir County Park, Los Gatos
• Los Gatos Creek County Park, Campbell
• Martial Cottle Park, San Jose
• Metcalf Motorcycle County Park, San Jose
• Mt. Madonna County Park, Watsonville

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• Penitencia Creek, San Jose
• Rancho San Antonio County Park, Cupertino
• Sanborn County Park, Saratoga
• Santa Teresa County Park, San Jose
• Stevens Creek County Park, Cupertino
• Sunnyvale Baylands Park, Sunnyvale
• Upper Stevens Creek County Park, Palo Alto
• Uvas Canyon County Park, Morgan Hill
• Uvas Reservoir County Park, Morgan Hill
• Vasona Lake County Park, Los Gatos
• Villa Montalvo, Saratoga

WILDLIFE
Vegetation management treatments are commonly applied throughout the county to benefit habitat for general wildlife species or game habitat. Most native wildlife species found in the region evolved with a frequent fire regime. However, impacts to wildlife should still be considered when planning fuel treatments. For more understanding about fuel management practices, please see Appendix F.

Wildfire management is an important component of wildlife management because of the impacts, both adverse and beneficial, that wildfire can have on wildlife habitat. The focus of most wildlife management is on the preservation of biodiversity and healthy functioning ecosystems; fire management and the application of prescribed fire can play an integral part in the preservation of biodiversity.

Projects to reduce wildfire risk that involve physical changes to the landscape such as creating fuel breaks or modifying vegetation types can have positive or negative impacts to wildlife. These impacts should be evaluated when projects are proposed and plans to implement the projects are developed.

The National Audubon Society is an organization advocating for healthy bird populations through conservation plans, actions, and policies. Over the past half century, a multitude of environmental threats such as land conversions, poor management, invasive species, and climate change have all contributed to a severe decline in bird populations. This trend has prompted the development of the Audubon Conservation Ranching Initiative. The National Audubon Society hopes to improve the health of grassland bird populations Santa Clara County by creating market-based incentives that encourage ranchers to take part in protecting and enhancing bird habitats.

Threatened and Endangered Species
Several threatened and endangered species reside in and around Santa Clara County. The County has designated habitat for five endangered species: California clapper rail, salt marsh harvest mouse, California tiger salamander, Bay checkerspot butterfly, and the San Joaquin kit fox (Santa Clara County 2023b). Additionally, the Almaden Quicksilver and Calero County Parks provide prime habitat for mountain lions, an apex predator in the region. The California Fish and Wildlife Commission is considering listing the Central Coast mountain lions under the state’s Endangered Species Act

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(Santa Clara County Parks 2023). In addition to mammals, amphibians, fish, lizards, and birds, many of the natural areas (e.g., county parks and conservation areas) contain various listed plants.

FOREST HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS

INSECTS
Native insect epidemics within plant communities are usually part of a natural disturbance cycle similar to wildfire. They are often cyclic in nature and are usually followed by the natural succession of vegetation over time. Of primary interest are those that attack tree species because of the implications for fire management.

In addition to native insect epidemics, exotic pests also pose a significant threat to forest ecosystems.

Invasive species are organisms that are introduced into an area beyond their natural range and become pests in the new environment. They are also referred to as exotic pests, alien, non-native, or introduced pests. The majority of introductions have been unintentional and accidental. Having evolved in a different environment, these invasive species may have few natural enemies in their new locations, which can often lead to rapid population increases that can out-compete native species for resources.

The introduction of exotic pests is likely to cause economic, environmental, and agricultural harm as well as harm to human health (California Department of Food and Agriculture [CDFA] 2021). In general, traits of invasive species include fast growth, rapid reproduction, rapid adaptability, tolerating a wide range of environmental conditions, and utilizing a variety of different foods (CDFA 2021).

Insects that have infested or have the potential to infect the forests within and around the Santa Clara County CWPP planning area include:
• Asian gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar asiatica)
• California oakworm (Phryganidia californica)
• Fruittree leafroller (Archips argyrospila)
• Bark beetles (Ips beetles) (Ips spp. and Dendroctonus spp.) • Western Cedar bark beetle (Phloeosinus punctatus)
• Mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae)
• Fir engraver beetle (Scolytus ventralis)
• Walnut twig beetle (Pityophthorus juglandis)
• Black pineleaf scale (Nuculaspis californica)
“On June 16, 2020, one male Asian gypsy moth was trapped in Sunnyvale (Santa Clara County).

Delimitation trapping continued through October and will resume next year. The delimitation project triggered by the 2018 find in Santa Cruz County resulted in no new finds this year and will likely resume in 2021” (USFS 2021c).

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DISEASES
Diseases of trees, such as parasitic plants, fungi, and bacteria, can also affect forests in the Santa Clara County CWPP planning area. These diseases impact forest systems by degrading the productivity and health of the forest. Some of the more common forest diseases that are found in the county are listed below. Trees that are killed by disease have the similar potential to increase fire hazards. • Sudden oak death (Phytophthora ramorum)
• Canker rots (Inonotus andersonii)
• Sulfur fungus (Laetiporus gilbertsonii)
• Red-belted conk (Fomitopsis pinicola)
• Mistletoe (Arceuthobium spp., Phoradendron spp.)
In 2021 the USFS observed several cases of the invasive disease sudden oak death (SOD) in the Bay area caused by Phytophthora ramorum. “Mortality was observed in new or expanded locations in Santa Clara and Santa Cruz counties, including both sides of the ridge between Watsonville and Morgan Hill along Highway 152” (USFS 2019). In 2020 along the border between Santa Cruz and Santa Clara counties high visible mortality was observed due to P. ramorum. According to the California Forest Pest Council, “open oak woodlands had scattered coast live oak mortality, while more heavily wooded areas had patches of continuous tanoak mortality and numerous understory tanoaks with [SOD] symptoms.” (California Forest Pest Council 2020). Furthermore, multiple significant outbreaks were identified in the Santa Cruz Mountains (USFS 2021c).

Treatments on federal land would be subject to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and associated analysis of impacts to these species. Treatments in areas that may impact threatened and endangered species would require application of certain mitigation measures to prevent degradation to habitat.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES

DROUGHT AND CLIMATE
Frequent drought, suppression-based forest management tactics, and climate change have all worked together to increase forest vulnerability. Removing natural fire from a fire-dependent ecosystem, drought, insects, and diseases have resulted in increased fuel build-up and alterations to vegetation composition.

These forest changes can increase the risk of uncharacteristically large high-severity fires (CDFW 2021b). In the past few years, fires have grown to record sizes and are burning earlier, longer, hotter, and more intensely than they have in the past (Westerling et al. 2006; Westerling 2016).

According to the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC), occurrence of catastrophic wildfires has greatly increased over the last 20 years. Westerling et al. (2006) claim that a study of large (>1,000 acres) wildfires throughout the western United States for the period of 1970 to 2003 saw a pronounced increase in fire frequency since the mid-1980s (1987–2003 fires were four times more frequent than the 1970– 1986 average). In addition, the length of the fire season increased by 78 days (comparing 1970–1986 data with that from 1987–2003). An update to Westerling et al.’s 2006 work found that the frequency of large wildfires has continued to increase with each decade since 1970 (Westerling 2016). Within just the

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last 10 years, a record number of acres have burned, and numbers are continually increasing (NIFC 2021a). In 2020, 58,950 fires were reported nationwide, burning 10.1 million acres (NIFC 2021a).

The same year in California, 4,304,379 acres were burned by wildfire (CAL FIRE 2020c). With increased fires comes increased suppression costs; 2018 beat all previous records, with federal firefighting costs hitting $3,143,256,000 (NIFC 2021b).

Moreover, as energy companies responded to the growing threat of wildfire events and likely risk of ignition by electrical transmission equipment, communities across the state were impacted by public safety power shutoff events. Furthermore, utility credit reductions result in higher consumer rates and homeowner’s insurance in the wildland-urban interface is also becoming more difficult and expensive to obtain in California (CA GOPR 2019).

In addition to direct damage (e.g., structure and property damage) caused by wildfires, uncharacteristically large and severe wildfires also cause indirect impacts on the environment and ecosystem services. Wildfires are known to deteriorate local and regional air quality, pollute waterways, displace native species (animal and plant), and increase greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide emissions. Greenhouse gases are a critical concern because they are the primary cause of the recent observed climate change, and climate change is a critical factor exacerbating frequency and severity of wildfires (CA GOPR 2019). Please see Appendix A for more information on the Safer from Wildfire initiative.

The shifting climate, particularly rising temperatures, changing wind patterns, and increasing temporal and spatial variability of water availability, are considerably escalating wildfire risk across the state.

The recurrence of severe fire weather during the autumn months has more than doubled in California since the 1980s, and considering climate change, this prevalence is projected to increase in the future.

As stated by California’s Fourth Climate Change Assessment, if greenhouse gas emissions continue to increase, California is expected to experience a 50% increase in fires larger than 25,000 acres, as well as a potential 77% increase in average area burned by 2100. The state has already begun to encounter the impacts of increased fire occurrence and severity. In fact, the five largest wildfires in California occurred in the last 3 years, including the August Complex fire (August 2020) and the Dixie fire (July 2021), burning a combined total of nearly 2 million acres and destroying over 2,000 structures (CAL FIRE 2022a).

Catastrophic wildfire events continue to present a significant threat to California’s communities.

Check out the Silicon Valley 2.0 Climate Change Preparedness Tool to find out about the vulnerability, risk, and impacts of climate change to your local community.

Silicon Valley 2.0: https://siliconvalleytwopointzero.org/setup?step=1 It is important to note that fire is a natural part of California’s diverse landscapes and is essential to many ecosystems across the state. Almost all of California’s diverse ecosystems are fire-dependent or fireadapted (CDFW 2021b). Frequent, uncharacteristically large, high-severity wildfires are the primary source of the catastrophic damage listed above.

TREE MORTALITY
A recent aerial detection survey completed by the USFS shows that California’s coastal forests have sustained significant levels of tree mortality. Surveyors drew polygons delineating tree stands and observed the percentage of trees affected. In the Santa Cruz Mountains tree mortality was observed to be widespread with most stands registering tree mortality as very light (1%–3%) to moderate (11%–29%) with secluded stands registering as severe (30%–50%) and very severe (>50%). In the Diablo Range,

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tree mortality was only observed on lower west facing slopes with tree mortality being very light (1%–3%) to light (4%–10%). Tree mortality was most likely not observed in the interior of the Diablo Range due to the Santa Clara Lightning Complex fires of 2020 burning most of the vegetation that was present.

The major species observed with mortality in the planning area include tanoak, Douglas fir, mixed oaks, and other conifer mortality (USFS 2022b).

Generally, tree mortality can be attributed to the cumulative impacts of overstocked forest conditions, extended drought, insect outbreaks, and disease. The State’s decreased forest health can be largely attributed to California having experienced its driest and warmest weather conditions on record between 2020 and 2022, leading to low water intake and escalated tree vulnerability. This trend coupled with excessive vegetative crowding and higher temperatures has further applied pressure to forests and making them more susceptible to insects and diseases. Dead tree accumulation and overstocked forest stands provide an abundance of dry and densely packed fuels, thus increasing the risk of high-severity wildfire. Since releasing these reports, the Forest Service has developed a 10-year strategy to address this issue through fuel reduction practices such as the removal of dead trees and reduction of live tree crowding near at-risk communities. This issue highlights the importance of properly managing hazardous fuels throughout the State, as the impacts of hot and dry conditions will continue to negatively affect forest health until the landscape receives multiple years of at or above average precipitation (USFS 2022b).

Researchers from the University of California Davis and the USFS conducted the Recent bark beetle outbreaks influence wildfire severity in mixed-conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada, California, USA study to answer this question. The researchers focused on the 2015 Rough Fire and the 2016 Cedar Fire areas for their assessment. These areas presented the perfect opportunity to study the effects of tree mortality on wildfire severity since they had recently burned and had existing tree mortality. They found that two measures of wildfire severity (area killed by fire and canopy torch) were significantly influenced by pre-fire tree mortality. That is, the higher the degree of tree mortality in an area, the higher the potential for a canopy fire and fire-killed trees. Considering that deceased trees pose an increased risk of intense wildfire, the researchers emphasized that fuel reduction treatments, such as thinning and prescribed fire, not only reduce the risk of catastrophic wildfire but can also reduce the severity of future bark beetle outbreaks (Wayman and Safford 2021).

Oak woodlands, which can be found distributed throughout the CWPP planning area, are sensitive to climate stressors including water availability and changes in precipitation. Under normal conditions oaks are well-adapted to surviving wildfire disturbances. However, due to climate stressors and reduced habitat extent caused by anthropogenic changes, the ability of oaks to recover from wildfire is greatly diminished. This has the potential to alter natural fire regimes in the area and may promote the succession of less fire tolerant species such as shrubs and grasses. Management strategies that may increase the resilience of oak woodlands to climate impacts include increased use of prescribed fire, restoration of native perennial grasses and forbs, climate-informed management of livestock grazing, and protection of oak woodlands within climatically suitable areas and/or potential refugia (Eco Adapt 2021).

Hazardous Trees
Hazardous trees come in all shapes and sizes and are often responsible for wildland fire ignitions, as well as damage to property and injury to people. It is important to be able to identify and report hazardous trees within the WUI or along critical infrastructure such as power lines. During high wind events, hazard trees have the potential to fall on powerlines and property potentially causing wildfire ignitions during conditions suitable for high intensity and rates of spread. It is advised that property owners and land

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management groups understand how to identify hazard trees and the best course of action for removing them. There are two steps that can be taken to identify the hazard potential of a tree (USFS 2022c).

1. Assess the target potential for each tree: Tree height should be used to assess the potential impact zone. Trees are known to fall unpredictably and may slide, roll, or cause a domino effect in thicker stands. The potential impact zone should be surveyed for values at risk such as power lines, vehicles, sleeping areas, structures, and high traffic zones.

2. Assess the tree defect potential: It is best to look at trees from 2 or 3 perspectives: close, at a distance, and all around. Be on the lookout for characteristics such as dead tops, split trunks, and fungal fruiting bodies. Accurately determining tree defects requires advanced knowledge and skill.

If a tree is suspected of having defects, it is advised to consult a licensed arborist or similar tree care professional.

If a tree on county land is suspected of having a combination of potential targets and tree defects, it should be reported to the Department of Planning and Development (Santa Clara County 2023c).

The County of Santa Clara offers tree removal permits that can be applied for free of charge. Property owners that have identified hazardous trees on their land are encouraged to consult licensed tree care professionals and utilize the Santa Clara County FireSafe Council’s free chipping program. The removal of hazardous trees is highly dangerous and should not be attempted without proper experience, knowledge, and equipment.

Eligible candidates for the Tree Risk Assessment Qualification (ISA TRAQ) to be recognized as a public tree care professional and gain specialized knowledge in tree risk assessments. More information on the ISA TRAQ can be found here: https://www.isa-arbor.com/Credentials/ISA-Tree-Risk-AssessmentQualification A link to the SCC tree removal permit can be found here:
https://stgenpln.blob.core.windows.net/document/TreeRemovalPermitApplication.pdf.

A link to the NWCG Hazard Tree Identification guide can be found here:
https://www.nwcg.gov/committee/6mfs/felling-safety/hazard-tree-identification

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Fire has been a component of California’s natural history for millennia, with natural and anthropogenically caused fires being a common occurrence in most parts of the state. Fire was used by Native Americans for a variety of purposes, as well as by settlers, ranchers, and loggers. In some vegetation types, frequent fires resulted in a mosaic of burned areas of various ages, with the more recently burned areas tending to impede the spread of new fires (Klinger et al. 2006). There are very few areas in the state that were not affected by fire. In addition, many California native plant species have adapted to periodic fires.

Despite the recognized role that fire plays as a natural occurrence and land management tool in the United States, fire can become detrimental once reaching extreme magnitudes and intensities. In addition to directly damaging structures and properties, large high-severity wildfires can also cause indirect impacts on the environment and ecosystem services. Large high-severity wildfires are known to deteriorate local and regional air quality, pollute waterways, displace native species (animal and plant), and increase carbon dioxide emissions. The increased carbon dioxide emissions are of special concern as carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases are implicated in climate change, and climate change is a critical factor exacerbating frequency and severity of wildfires.

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Low severity wildfire is also acknowledged as a keystone process for many ecosystem types.

Frequent low-severity fire restores and maintains forest composition, structure, and functions to their natural conditions which leads to a greater resilience to large-scale disturbances, high-severity fire, insects, disease, drought, and climate change (North et al. 2019). Reduction of tree density as a result of healthy fire decreases the risk of loss to disturbances and increases the growth rate of retained trees, biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and spatial heterogeneity across the landscape (North et al. 2019).

Santa Clara exists within the North American Mediterranean Climate Zone (NAMCZ) that encompasses most of the State, displaying a high degree of variety with respect to the with major fire regimes it facilitates (Höllermann et al. 1993). Historically, fire regimes in coastal areas of California with Mediterranean climates and chaparral as the dominant vegetation typically burned every 30 to 65 years, as chaparral is adapted to infrequent but high-severity fires (Ainsworth and Doss 1995). By contrast, California oak woodlands are well adapted for low-intensity groundfires, as their seedlings can resprout after experiencing top-fire (UCANR 1994). These differing regimes exemplify the complexity of fire and its role as a key ecosystem service within the county, which has been obscured by suppressive wildfire management. A century of intense fire suppression, the introduction of nonnative plants such as eucalyptus, and climate change have altered historic vegetation conditions and fire behavior in the state (Airey-Lauvaux et al. 2022). This progression coupled with the occurrence of California’s fourth largest wildfire on record burning through massive portions of the Diablo Range in the eastern portion of the county emphasizes the need to shift fire management focuses toward restoring key ecosystem functions.

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FIRE RESPONSE CAPABILITIES
Figure B.5. Fire agency service areas.

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LOCAL RESPONSE
The City and County Fire Departments in Santa Clara County work collaboratively to provide effective fire response services to communities throughout the county. Visually represented within Figure B.7 are the service areas of the local fire stations, showcasing the extent of their coverage across the county.

In addition to service area, estimated response times are depicted, illustrating the departments' commitment to swift and efficient emergency assistance.

Santa Clara County Fire Department
The Santa Clara County Fire Department is the leading fire response agency serving majority of Santa Clara County. Within their jurisdiction are the communities of Campbell, Cupertino, Los Altos, Los Altos Hills, Los Gatos, Monte Sereno, Redwood Estates, Saratoga and the adjacent unincorporated areas of Lexington and Summit. Staffing for the service area’s 24-hour response is composed of an operational minimum of 66 firefighters and officers operating from 15 fire stations with 31 front-line fire apparatus, as well as three command vehicles. The total response service area covers about 130 square miles with a population of approximately 225,000 people. The department has 300 employees staffing community education, prevention, investigation, operations, emergency management, maintenance, and administration (SCCFD 2020).

City Fire Departments
The cities of Palo Alto, San Jose, Morgan Hill, and Gilroy (all with WUI designated areas) provide their own fire departments, which manage a wide variety of emergency incidents.

City of Santa Clara
The City of Santa Clara Fire Department is responsible for the staffing of nine fire stations throughout the service area, with another planned to be added in 2025. The department comprises five divisions: the Fire Administration Division, the Emergency Medical Division, the Community Risk Reduction Division, the Field Operations Division, and the Training Division. Available resources response and other activities include eight engines, two trucks, one rescue unit, one hazardous materials unit, and two command vehicles. The Department has achieved accreditation through a process developed by the Center for Public Safety Excellence and the Commission on Fire Accreditation International (City of Santa Clara 2023).

City of Milpitas
The Milpitas Fire Department provides fire suppression, rescue, hazardous materials response, disaster coordination, and emergency medical services for the City of Milpitas. Its mission is to protect the community through the preservation of life, property, and the environment while upholding a high level of the public’s trust. The department is staffed with 11 full-time employees across four fire stations (City of Milpitas 2023).

Mountain View Fire Department
The Mountain View Fire Department (MVFD) provides the community with education, training, fire prevention, and life safety services. The department emphasizes the importance of applying best practices, highlighting innovative emergency response and environmental protection as key components

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of its activities. Through independent evaluations of its fire protection efforts by the Insurance Services Office, MVFD has become 1 of 35 fire agencies in California to receive a Class 1 Public Protection Classification rating. The department’s apparatus includes seven engines, one rescue unit, one hazardous materials vehicle, and one truck (City of Mountain View 2023) Sunnyvale Fire Department
The Sunnyvale Fire Department provides emergency services for the City of Sunnyvale, reducing the loss of life and property through inspections, enforcement of codes, permitting, and public education.

The department disseminates educative materials and carries out actions for businesses, new construction, and homes. Annual fire safety inspections are conducted by the Fire Prevention Service year-round (Sunnyvale 2023).

Palo Alto Fire Department
The Palo Alto Fire Department staffs six full-time stations located strategically throughout the City of Palo Alto (City of Palo Alto 2023). The Palo Alto Fire Department has been recognized as one of ten municipal fire departments in California and one of 259 in the world to achieve international accreditation. This accomplishment places the department among less than 1% of fire departments in the world. The Palo Alto Fire Department is the only fire agency in Santa Clara County that also provides ambulance services (City of Palo Alto 2023).

The Palo Alto Fire Department provides emergency fire and life safety response services to the community of Palo Alto through means of automatic and mutual aid agreements. Each of the six total stations incorporate three shifts of professional firefighters working 24/7, allowing for constant fire suppression, emergency medical services, ambulance transport, hazardous material management, technical and water rescue, and other life- and property-protecting actions to fulfill community safety needs. The Standards of Cover and Deployment Plan provides a community risk analysis, assessing the necessary resource distribution to ensure effective response capabilities within the service aera. To learn more about the Standards of Cover and Deployment Plan please visit:
https://www.cityofpaloalto.org/Departments/Fire/Operations (City of Palo Alto 2023).

San José Fire Department
The San José Fire Department (SJFD) is the third largest in California, protecting the City of San José and some unincorporated areas of Santa Clara County. This department covers approximately 200 square miles and 1 million residents, with high-hazard occupancies such as the San José International Airport, hospitals, San José State University, and high-rise structures throughout the city within its jurisdiction. The SJFD offers emergency response and medical services across the service area through the usage of 34 fire stations (SJFD 2023; City of San José 2023).

Morgan Hill Fire Department
The Morgan Hill Fire Department has three stations: Dunne Hill Station, El Toro Station, and the Headquarters. The department is assisted by a local CAL FIRE station located in Morgan Hill. In addition to fire prevention, the department also conducts first responder paramedic response, rescue response, fire response, and support for coordinating other activities promoting public safety. Fire prevention

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responsibilities outlined by the Morgan Hill Fire Marshall are achieved through the following practices (City of Morgan Hill 2023):
• Regulating the use and maintenance of buildings
• Controlling potentially dangerous materials, products, and processes • Providing oversight for fire prevention in wildland areas • Reviewing regulations and building standards
• Providing training and education to both Fire Staff and the general public Gilroy Fire Department
The Gilroy Fire Department operates out of three stations: Chestnut, Las Animas, and Sunset (City of Gilroy 2023a). The department responds to calls in residential, commercial, industrial, and agricultural areas within the city. To alert the public of onset or possible onset fire risk characterized by critical weather or dry conditions, the department issues notices of local high fire risk. During times of heighted risk, the Gilroy Fire Department increases their staffing and equipment capabilities and urges the public to exercise caution when performing any activities that may pose a fire risk (City of Gilroy 2023b).

NASA AMES Fire Department
The NASA AMES Fire Department was formerly known as Moffet Field Fire Department and provides emergency services in a portion of northern Santa Clara County. The department is located near an airport, having airport crash tenders and protective structural equipment to prevent damage to the NASA Ames Research Center. The department’s apparatuses include three engines, four aircraft rescue and firefighting trucks, one battalion vehicle, one chief vehicle, and one support vehicle (NASA Ames Fire Department 2023).

Volunteer Fire Departments
Several volunteer fire companies participate in wildfire activities in Santa Clara County. These include the Uvas Volunteer Fire Department (Morgan Hill), the Casa Loma Volunteer Fire Association (Croy area), the Loma Prieta Volunteer Fire and Rescue (Summit area of Lexington Hills), the Spring Valley Volunteer Fire Department (San Jose/Milpitas), and the Stevens Creek Volunteer Fire Department (Cupertino).

Volunteer fire companies are private, not for profit-public benefit organizations that provide service to their neighborhoods. Local jurisdictional authority for fire protection resides with a county agency as follows:

County of Santa Clara (Spring Valley), South Santa Clara County Fire Protection District (Casa Loma and Uvas), Santa Clara County/Central Fire Protection District (Stevens Creek), and Santa Cruz County (Loma Prieta). The County of Santa Clara provides some fiscal and insurance support for these volunteer fire companies.

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Figure B.6. Map of suppression difficulty index.

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Figure B.7. Fire station service areas.

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STATE RESPONSE
California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) CAL FIRE is responsible for initial fire response within SRAs, or where the State is responsible for fire response, in California. SRAs fall to the east and west sides of the county, encompassing the foothill and mountainous regions of the Diablo Range and Santa Cruz Mountains (CAL FIRE 2022c). Dispatch, coordination, and logistical support is provided via the Morgan Hill Command Center (SCCC) (SCGCC 2022), which operates under the Southern California GACC, also known as Operations Southern California (OSCC). The OSCC is a partnership among the USFS, U.S. Department of the Interior, and CAL FIRE. The cooperative organization carries out a collection of important wildfire preparedness duties in support of management agencies, such as intelligence reports, fire weather data reports, equipment, and supplies distribution.

CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit
CAL FIRE’s Santa Clara Unit covers several counties, including Contra Costa, Alameda, Santa Clara, and the western portions of Stanislaus and San Joaquin Counties. The unit is responsible for 1.3 million acres of direct protection area, with a population of 5.5 million people, operating through the Morgan Hill Command Center for dispatch services. Four of the unit’s battalions are located in Santa Clara County:

Battalion One (Morgan Hill), Battalion Two (San Jose), Battalion Three (West Santa Clara County), and Battalion Seven (South Santa Clara County Fire District and Morgan Hill Fire Department).

The CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit is operating out of the following 11 stations:
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 11 Morgan Hill
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 12 Smith Creek
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 13 Alma
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 15 Del Puerto
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 16 Sunshine
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 21 Coyote
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 22 Almaden
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 23 Stevens Creek
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 25 Sweetwater
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 26 Castle Rock
• CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Station 31 Pacheco
CAL FIRE Supporting Units
CAL FIRE units from adjacent counties provide additional resources and fire protection services within Santa Clara County. The CAL FIRE San Mateo-Santa Cruz Unit to the west has fire stations on the county line near Highways 17, 35, and 9 and is the primary source of fire agency hand crew resources used in Santa Clara County. The CAL FIRE San Benito-Monterey Unit also has fire stations close to the county in Hollister and Aromas, as well as the Hollister Air Attack Base that supports Santa Clara County

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with fixed-wing air tankers and air tactical aircraft. Additional CAL FIRE ground and air resources are available to assist in the county SRA wildland areas.

FEDERAL RESPONSE
Within Santa Clara County are two areas designated as FRAs (Figure B.8). One area, within the Diablo Range, is owned and managed by the BLM Central Coast Field Office (BLM 2023a). The Central Coast Field Office does not have a fire management plan at this time (BLM 2023b). The other area, which is located in the northern sector of Santa Clara County, is the Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife refuge, which is owned and managed by the USFWS. Fire incident response is coordinated by the USFWS for occurring within lands that it owns and operates.

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Figure B.8. Fire responsibility areas and fire station locations.

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MUTUAL AID
The wildland fire community is well known for its development of mutual aid agreements at the federal, state, and local levels. Such automatic aid agreements allow for the closest forces to respond to an incident as quickly as possible regardless of jurisdiction. Such agreements may also describe how reimbursement will be conducted; state resources responding to wildfires on federal land may have their associated costs reimbursed by the responsible federal agency, and the reverse is true for federal resources suppressing a wildfire on state land.

The Santa Clara Unit has auto-aid or cooperative agreements with several local fire protection entities, including the South Santa Clara County Fire District, Santa Clara Fire Department, Gilroy Fire Department, Palo Alto Fire Department, Milpitas Fire Department, San Jose Fire Department, and Morgan Hill Fire Department.

Santa Cruz County Fire Department, Alameda County Fire Department, San Mateo County Fire Department, and other local government fire agencies in adjoining counties are frequently first responders to wildfires in Santa Clara County due to proximity and concern for mutual threat.

All fire agencies in Santa Clara County participate countywide automatic and/or mutual aid plans for response to incidents outside their own jurisdiction. The County also participates in the California Fire Service and Rescue Emergency Mutual Aid System, which provides a practical and flexible pattern for the orderly development and operation of mutual aid on a voluntary basis between cities, cities and counties, fire districts, special districts, county fire departments, and applicable state agencies.

EVACUATION RESOURCES
The possibility of fatal entrapments exists, and therefore planning for the sudden occurrence of a fire under extreme conditions is a vital part of plans developed by local jurisdictions, as well as families.

Particular attention must be paid to the location of locked gates, which will slow, and possibly block, the use of evacuation routes. Likewise, overgrown evacuation routes with high fuel loading near the road edge may be unusable due to intense heat and long flame lengths, falling trees and power poles, or other hazards that an active fire can create and may lead to fatal results. In addition, local storms can cause issues for evacuation. Washed out roads, downed trees and power lines, flood zones, and other poststorm impacts can delay or even prevent evacuation. Post-storm clean-up is a lengthy process requiring a plethora of resources from multiple departments. Emergency services and first responders are commonly stretched thin when natural disasters strike, and therefore compounding natural disasters can cause major impacts in regard to response and recovery.

Wildfire response may necessitate the involvement of law enforcement agencies to provide for the safety of life and property during evacuation. Firefighters prioritize protecting human life and will urge people to evacuate from areas threatened by wildfire to reduce the risk of loss of life. Under California law, the responsibility for evacuation rests with law enforcement. Firefighters do not have the legal authority to order people to leave their property or to close public roads. Close coordination between law enforcement and fire agencies in planning and implementing evacuations is critical. Most frequently the task is under the jurisdiction of the sheriff, who also coordinates all law enforcement mutual aid.

Evacuation planning is a joint effort among city and county departments with law enforcement as the lead agency. If a fire does break out and spread rapidly, residents may need to evacuate within days or hours.

A fire’s peak burning period generally is between 1 p.m. and 6 p.m. Once a fire has started, fire alerting is

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reasonably rapid in most cases (Santa Clara County 2017). Evacuation information and links to Alert signups can be found here: https://www.sccfd.org/be-evacuation-ready/ During emergency operations, there may be several lead and support agencies involved. A single incident commander will be assigned from the responsible agency. If law enforcement and the fire department both have substantial responsibilities a Unified Incident Command structure will be established to integrate incident objectives and develop an Incident Action Plan (Santa Clara County 2017). The following are protective action terms for the Santa Clara County Local Fire Service and Rescue Mutual Aid Plan:

1. Evacuation Warning – The alerting of people in an affected area(s) of potential threat to life and property. An Evacuation Warning considers the probability that an area will be affected within a given timeframe and prepares people for a potential evacuation order. Evacuation Warnings are particularly necessary when dealing with a variety of issues such as special needs populations and large animals.

2. Evacuation Order – Requires the immediate movement of people out of an affected area due to an imminent threat to life.

3. Shelter-In-Place – Advises people to stay secure at their current location. This tactic shall only be used if the evacuation will cause a higher potential for the loss of life. Consideration should be given to assigning incident personnel to monitor the safety of citizens remaining in place.

4. Rescue – Emergency actions taken within the affected area to recover and remove injured or trapped citizens. Responders have specific training and personal protective equipment necessary to accomplish the mission, i.e., hazardous material spill, swift water rescue, etc. Boundaries of the areas where rescue is planned should be identified on the incident map with notation that entry is restricted to rescue workers only.

5. Community Refuge Area – A designated location that is considered to provide a greater level of survivability than Shelter-In-Place. If unable to make it to a designated Evacuation Shelter, civilians should be directed to seek shelter at a Community Refuge Area.

Evacuation checklists re-entry planning checklists, and decision support checklists can be found in Santa Clara County Local Fire Service and Rescue Mutual Aid Plan Appendix 13 – Protective Action Guidelines (revised 2017): https://www.sccfd.org/wp-content/uploads/documents/mutual_aid_plan/app_13_01-

17.pdf.

Santa Clara County has also developed the Operational Area Emergency Operations Plan (2008), which describes the purpose and history of the statewide mutual aid program. The statewide mutual aid system includes several specific mutual aid systems for fire, rescue, and law enforcement services.

As emergency incidents escalate in size and complexity, mutual aid agreements facilitate the acquisition of increased levels of staff in support of various components of the incident, including law enforcement responsibilities.

Please note that the public should follow the latest guidance from trusted sources, such as official government agencies, in regard to evacuation orders, especially as emergency response plans change rapidly. Current evacuation orders should always be adhered to and supersede all information presented in the CWPP.

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Wildland Urban Interface Pre-Plans and Evacuation Guides The 2018 CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Fire Plan identifies a number of pre-fire projects within the county for the period of 2015–2018 (CAL FIRE 2018: Appendix A). The Santa Clara County CWPP was identified as a project for 2016. Pre-fire projects include Vegetation Management Plans at Henry Coe, defensible space projects for Santa Clara County communities at risk, and defensible space and fuel break projects for the Santa Cruz Mountains. Further the pre-fire projects include a Santa Clara Unit Incident Pre-Attack and Evacuation Plan.

Pre-response and evacuation planning is identified in the CAL FIRE Santa Clara Unit Fire Plan (CAL FIRE 2018) for a number of communities and open space areas, including Pacheco Pass, Henry Coe Park, Mt. Hamilton, Lexington Basin, Saratoga, Los Altos, Stevens Canyon, and Montevina Road. Collaborative work has also been underway with the South Skyline FireSafe Council in Santa Cruz County along Skyline Road (Highway 35) including fuel modification work to maintain an evacuation route between Santa Clara and Santa Cruz Counties.

The goal of the pre-response and evacuation plans would be to provide new personnel, CAL FIRE Emergency Command Center staff, and incident management teams with the location of strategic control points and access into remote SRA land.

Many communities have already been the focus of pre-planning efforts, including the Holiday Lakes/ Jackson Oaks communities where a pre-response and evacuation plan was completed in January 2016.

CAL FIRE highlights the importance of working in cooperation with the Santa Clara County FireSafe Council, local law enforcement, and other local cooperators to develop evacuation plans and fire plans for communities at risk susceptible to a major incident.

Community Signage
Fire prevention signs can be useful media through which to share with the public the current fire danger.

Sign messages should be adjusted regularly to reflect seasonal changes and deliver fresh messages.

Signage can be missing, indistinct, or at risk of combustion. Confusing signage impeding access due to narrow roads. Signs are currently located at:
• The CAL FIRE Alma Helitack Base on Santa Cruz Highway • Dunne Hill Fire Station
• Strategic locations in Morgan Hill
• Summit Road/Loma Prieta
Please note that the public should follow the latest guidance from trusted sources, such as official government agencies, in regard to evacuation orders, especially as emergency response plans change rapidly. Current evacuation orders should always be adhered to and supersede all information presented in the CWPP.

Road Systems
Road systems play a large part in evacuation procedures. Roads in the WUI vary in characteristics but are sometimes unpaved. Private driveways can be mistaken for roads, turnarounds and pullouts are limited, and dead ends provide particularly dangerous situations for evacuations. Overhanging vegetation,

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and the possibility of long driveways being mistaken for evacuation routes were cited in community CWPPs.

Due to the wildfire and roadside ignition history in Lexington Hills and the high commute traffic volumes on Highway 17 between Los Gatos and Santa Cruz, compounded by very narrow alternative roads, additional coordination between Santa Cruz County law enforcement agencies and Santa Clara is needed. The county line creates challenges because not only are two County Sheriff’s and County Roads Departments involved, but the California Highway Patrol and Caltrans have district boundaries at the county line. Local municipal police departments from Los Gatos and Scotts Valley (Santa Cruz County) may also be engaged in evacuation efforts in the Highway 17 corridor.

Information on specific road systems can be found in Appendix B.

People
The safe and efficient evacuation of people from wildfire requires several factors, including:
• Emergency notification methods: AlertSCC is the County of Santa Clara’s official emergency alert and warning system. This system will allow county citizens to receive the right information at the right time which will help in emergency decision making. The alerts are available in a multitude of languages including English and Spanish. AlertSCC provides alerts regarding fire, earthquakes, severe weather, crime, and instructions during an ongoing disaster. Information provided by AlertSCC should be used in addition to local, state, and federal alert and warning systems. This can be accomplished by monitoring television, radio, and government websites for important announcements.
o To sign up for AlertSCC in Santa Clara County, follow this link:
https://member.everbridge.net/453003085615038/new.
• Preplanning by the public about how to evacuate and where to go: Locked gates, poor or missing signage, and conflicts with emergency vehicles driving into the community versus the public trying to leave complicate evacuation. Uncertainty about where to find temporary refuge can cause families to become separated and delay reunions. Some individuals without transportation or with limited mobility may be accidentally left behind. • Public awareness: These two items will fail to occur throughout the county if the residents are unaware of notification methods: 1) the need for preplanning and 2) the elements that should be included in preplanning. Therefore, public education and outreach on these topics should be part of all efforts conducted by agencies such as fire departments in a wide variety of venues. Given the wide variety of communities, languages, and cultures found within the county, and its broad range of urban to rural settings, a “one size fits all” public awareness program will miss portions of the public.

Community Emergency Response Team
Developed by FEMA, the Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) training is a program that educates community members about disaster preparedness for hazards that may impact their area and trains them in basic disaster response skills, such as fire safety, light search and rescue, team organization, and disaster medical. Supplemental training modules are available to better assist professional responders in a variety of emergency situations. Advanced training includes such topics as animal response, emergency communications, traffic and crowd management, and flood response.

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CERT academies are offered in the communities served by the Santa Clara County Fire Department and are offered on a rotating basis throughout the year. This training supplies CERT members with the knowledge and ability to mobilize neighborhood resources, deliver immediate assistance to victims, organize emergency communications, and provide support to first responders. Using classroom and simulation-based education, CERT members can assist others in their neighborhood or workplace immediately following an event when emergency responders may not be immediately available to help.

CERT training is accomplished in about 21-hours culminating with a final disaster simulation exercise applying the skills participants have learned (Santa Clara County 2023d).

Gilroy City CouncilNovember 4, 2024

Gilroy City Council
November 4, 2024