City Council and Authorities Concurrent
August 27, 2024

Table 89: Value of Structures in the 10-Percent Annual Chance Flood Hazard Area Jurisdiction
Estimated Value within the Floodplain % of Total
Replacement
Structure Contents Total Value
Campbell $46,559,000 $43,284,000 $140,698,000 1.60
Cupertino $0 $0 $0 0.00
Gilroy $96,223,000 $165,308,000 $574,813,000 4.86
Los Altos $0 $0 $0 0.00
Los Altos Hills $0 $0 $0 0.00
Los Gatos $16,191,000 $22,610,000 $109,895,000 1.14
Milpitas $44,056,000 $47,811,000 $224,231,000 1.40
Monte Sereno $0 $0 $0 0.00
Morgan Hill $30,975,000 $18,233,000 $67,576,000 0.63
Mountain View $22,645,000 $33,678,000 $140,380,000 0.83 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 291
Jurisdiction
Estimated Value within the Floodplain % of Total
Replacement
Structure Contents Total Value
Palo Alto $7,892,000 $163,325,000 $91,985,000 0.45
San José $1,187,925,000 $2,015,872,000 $6,140,963,000 3.56 Santa Clara (city) $178,713,000 $233,150,000 $766,887,000 2.77 Saratoga $21,643,000 $16,633,000 $51,942,000 0.56
Sunnyvale $41,315,000 $68,059,000 $216,544,000 0.74
Unincorporated County $67,392,000 $67,064,000 $255,548,000 1.25 Total $1,761,529,000 $2,895,027,000 $8,781,462,000 2.30 Table 90: Value of Structures in the 1-Percent Annual Chance Flood Hazard Area Jurisdiction
Estimated Value within the Floodplain % of Total
Replacement
Structure Contents Total Value
Campbell $91,932,000 $80,508,000 $257,047,000 8.48
Cupertino $24,021,000 $18,081,000 $59,916,000 2.16
Gilroy $225,196,000 $420,220,000 $1,346,610,000 17.42
Los Altos $1,351,000 $710,000 $2,234,000 0.00
Los Altos Hills $0 $0 $0 0.00
Los Gatos $30,840,000 $42,934,000 $168,827,000 3.63
Milpitas $115,342,000 $137,652,000 $548,317,000 6.65
Monte Sereno $0 $0 $0 0.00
Morgan Hill $115,482,000 $81,114,000 $259,011,000 6.61
Mountain View $75,707,000 $109,233,000 $416,222,000 4.95 Palo Alto $18,739,000 $40,559,000 $157,789,000 0.92
San José $3,271,469,000 $5,761,915,000 $15,986,581,000 11.02 Santa Clara
(city)
$360,286,000 $476,086,000 $1,462,841,000 13.04
Saratoga $100,151,000 $73,527,000 $226,648,000 4.79
Sunnyvale $208,800,000 $260,543,000 $832,836,000 9.02
Unincorporated
County
$157,862,000 $178,277,000 $682,246,000 3.83
Total $4,797,178,000 $7,681,359,000 $22,407,125,000 9.14 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 292
Table 91: Value of Structures in the 0.2-Percent Annual Chance Flood Hazard Area Jurisdiction
Estimated Value within the Floodplain % of Total
Replacement
Structure Contents Total Value
Campbell $127,488,000 $110,733,000 $355,863,000 4.04
Cupertino $36,263,000 $29,154,000 $94,619,000 0.66
Gilroy $319,375,000 $641,660,000 $2,015,006,000 17.03
Los Altos $1,791,000 $948,000 $3,090,000 0.04
Los Altos Hills $0 $0 $0 0.00
Los Gatos $39,193,000 $56,508,000 $212,717,000 2.21
Milpitas $191,075,000 $242,248,000 $934,245,000 5.84
Monte Sereno $0 $0 $0 0.00
Morgan Hill $161,794,000 $109,502,000 $350,641,000 3.25 Mountain View $119,699,000 $166,238,000 $669,226,000 3.95 Palo Alto $76,861,000 $100,127,000 $367,056,000 1.81
San José $5,656,110,000 $10,606,664,000 $28,947,287,000 16.79 Santa Clara
(city)
$812,021,000 $1,177,901,000 $3,760,129,000 13.60
Saratoga $127,579,000 $96,493,000 $289,244,000 3.09
Sunnyvale $351,074,000 $419,774,000 $1,361,761,000 4.64 Unincorporated
County
$225,387,000 $262,239,000 $929,177,000 4.53
Total $8,245,710,000 $14,020,189,000 $40,290,061,000 10.56

13.4.3 Critical Facilities and Infrastructure
Table 92, Table 93, and Table 94 summarize the critical facilities and infrastructure in the 10-, 1-, and

0.2-percent-annual-chance flood hazard areas. Details are provided in the following sections.

Toxic Release Inventory Reporting Facilities
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) facilities are known to manufacture, process, store, or otherwise use certain chemicals above minimum thresholds. If damaged by a flood, these facilities could release chemicals that cause cancer or other human health effects, significant adverse acute human health effects, or significant adverse environmental effects.264F 265 During a flood event, containers holding these
materials can rupture and leak into the surrounding area, disastrously affecting the environment and residents. Seventy-eight facilities within the 1-percent-annual-chance flood zone are TRI reporting facilities.
265 Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Flooding. https://www.epa.gov/natural-disasters/flooding Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 293
Table 92: Critical Facilities in the 10-Percent Annual Chance Flood Hazard Area Jurisdiction
Number of Facilities in the Floodplain
Essential
Facilities Transportation Utilities Community Assets
Hazardous
Materials Total
Campbell 0 1 0 1 0 2
Cupertino 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gilroy 1 8 0 1 0 10
Los Altos 0 0 0 0 0 0
Los Altos Hills 0 0 0 0 0 0
Los Gatos 0 6 0 0 0 6
Milpitas 2 2 0 1 1 6
Monte Sereno 0 0 0 0 0 0
Morgan Hill 0 0 0 1 0 1
Mountain View 0 0 0 1 2 3
Palo Alto 0 1 0 0 3 4
San José 17 50 1 19 37 124
Santa Clara (city) 3 2 0 2 9 16
Saratoga 0 3 0 0 0 3
Sunnyvale 1 1 0 0 2 4
Unincorporated
County 0 32 0 3 0 35
Total 24 106 1 29 54 214
Table 93: Critical Facilities in the 1-Percent Annual Chance Flood Hazard Area Jurisdiction
Number of Facilities in the Floodplain
Essential
Facilities Transportation Utilities Community Assets
Hazardous
Materials Total
Campbell 1 1 0 2 0 4
Cupertino 0 2 0 1 0 3
Gilroy 5 15 0 5 1 26
Los Altos 0 0 0 0 0 0
Los Altos Hills 0 0 0 0 0 0
Los Gatos 0 7 0 2 0 9
Milpitas 3 10 0 2 1 16
Monte Sereno 0 0 0 0 0 0
Morgan Hill 0 1 0 1 0 2
Mountain View 1 1 0 3 3 8
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 294
Jurisdiction
Number of Facilities in the Floodplain
Essential
Facilities Transportation Utilities Community Assets
Hazardous
Materials Total
Palo Alto 0 1 0 0 4 5
San José 35 87 0 38 48 208
Santa Clara (city) 5 2 3 4 18 32
Saratoga 0 7 0 1 0 8
Sunnyvale 4 2 0 2 3 11
Unincorporated
County 4 49 0 3 0 56
Total 58 185 3 64 78 388
Table 94: Critical Facilities in the 0.2-Percent Annual Chance Flood Hazard Area Jurisdiction
Number of Facilities in the Floodplain
Essential
Facilities Transportation Utilities Community Assets
Hazardous
Materials Total
Campbell 1 1 0 2 0 4
Cupertino 0 4 0 1 0 5
Gilroy 7 16 0 6 1 30
Los Altos 0 0 0 0 0 0
Los Altos Hills 0 0 0 0 0 0
Los Gatos 0 8 0 2 0 10
Milpitas 4 11 0 3 3 21
Monte Sereno 0 0 0 0 0 0
Morgan Hill 1 1 0 1 0 3
Mountain View 2 1 0 4 3 10
Palo Alto 2 3 1 0 5 11
San José 52 125 7 60 62 306
Santa Clara (city) 8 7 2 7 51 75
Saratoga 1 11 0 1 0 13
Sunnyvale 7 2 0 3 6 18
Unincorporated
County 4 54 0 4 0 62
Total 89 244 10 94 131 568
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 295
Utilities and Infrastructure
It is important to determine who may be at risk if infrastructure is damaged by flooding. Roads or railroads that are blocked or damaged can isolate residents and can prevent access throughout the OA, including for emergency service providers needing to get to vulnerable populations or to make repairs. Bridges washed out or blocked by floods or debris also can cause isolation. Water and sewer systems can be flooded or backed up, causing health problems. Underground utilities can be damaged. Dikes can fail or be overtopped, inundating the land that they protect. The following sections describe specific types of critical infrastructure.

Roads
The following major roads in the OA pass through the 1-percent-annual-chance flood zone and thus are exposed to flooding:
 US 101
 Interstate 280
 Interstate 680
 Interstate 880
 State Route 9
 State Route 17
 State Route 82
 State Route 85
 State Route 87
 State Route 152
 State Route 237
Some of these roads are built above the flood level, and others function as levees to prevent flooding.

Still, in severe flood events these roads can be blocked or damaged, preventing access to some areas.

Infrastructure Lifelines
Flooding events can significantly impact critical infrastructure lifelines such as highways, bridges, airports, water and wastewater facilities and communication facilities. An analysis showed that there are 629 infrastructure lifelines (241 are bridges) that are in or cross over the 1-percent-annual-chance flood zone and 928 infrastructure lifelines in the 0.2-percent-annual-chance flood zone.

Water and Sewer Infrastructure
Water and sewer systems can be affected by flooding. Floodwaters can back up drainage systems, causing localized flooding. Culverts can be blocked by debris from flood events, also causing localized urban flooding. Floodwaters can get into drinking water supplies, causing contamination. Sewer systems can be backed up, causing wastewater to spill into homes, neighborhoods, rivers, and streams.

Levees
SCVWD constructed flood protection levees in the north, central, and southern portions of the county, some of which provide 1-percent-annual-chance flood protection. The levees along Uvas Creek, King Creek, Lyons Creek, and Coyote Creek participate in Corps’ Levee Program. Levees along the Guadalupe River do not participate. SCVWD does not believe the majority of levees could withstand intensities of a 1-percent annual chance flood. Additionally, coastal flooding from San Francisco Bay circumvents levees near the Bay. Moreover, current flood levels do not account for potential sea level rise, which would exacerbate vulnerability and further reduce the ability of the levees to prevent or reduce flooding.

The presence and effects of levee systems in the Santa Clara County OA are not reflected on the FIRM, meaning that areas, structures, and populations vulnerable to failures of those levees cannot be determined. Levee failures could place large numbers of people and great amounts of property at risk.

Unlike dams, levees do not serve any purpose beyond providing flood protection and (less frequently) recreational space for residents. A levee failure could be devastating, depending on severity of flooding and amount of land development present. In addition to damaging buildings, infrastructure, trees, and other large objects, levee failure can result in significant water quality and debris disposal issues. Severe erosion is also a consideration.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 296

13.4.4 Environment
Loss estimation platforms such as Hazus are not currently equipped to measure environmental impacts of flood hazards. The best gauge of vulnerability of the environment would be a review of damage from past flood events. Loss data that segregates damage to the environment was not available at the time of this plan. Capturing this data from future events could be beneficial in measuring the vulnerability of the environment for future updates. Habitats that are expected to be impacted by riverine flooding are shown in Table 95.

Table 95: Habitats Expected to Be Impacted by Riverine Flooding265F 266
Habitat Type FEMA 100-Year Storm
Riverine Flooding
Bay Wetlands: Coastal Salt Marsh and Coastal Brackish Marsh 1,695 acres (84%) Freshwater Wetland 2,350 acres (64%)
Grassland 3,176 acres (2%)
Riparian and Riverine 546 acres (19%)
Freshwater Lake and Pond 1,792 acres (57%)
Chaparral and Scrubland 358 acres (0.3%)
Coastal Scrubland 9 acres (0.2%)
Coniferous Forest 20 acres (0.2%)
Hardwood Forest 314 acres (0.5%)
Oak Woodland 1,341 ac (0.7%)
Redwood Forest 40 ac (0.3%)
Note: Given that vulnerability to riverine flooding is currently determined by FEMA Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMS), it is possible that the flooding near the Bay could be occurring from either storm surge or riverine flooding.

Specific strategies for each will be required once source confirmation is made. Habitats with vulnerability of less than 1% were not considered highly vulnerable.
266 County of Santa Clara Office of Sustainability and Climate Action. (2015, August). Silicon Valley 2.0 Climate Adaptation Guidebook.
https://sustainability.sccgov.org/sites/g/files/exjcpb976/files/documents/1_150803_Final%20Guidebook_W_Appendic es.pdf
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 297
Figure 65: 100-Year Floodplain Area Land Cover26F
267

13.5 Vulnerability
Changes in Conditions: No change in vulnerability
 The areas vulnerable to 1% and 0.2% flood events have as mapped in FIRMs have not changed.  Population growth and building growth in the OA have been slow.  Flooding can occur in localized areas not identified in special flood hazard areas (SFHAs) during heavy rain. These are more difficult to anticipate in advance and areas at risk may not yet have been recognized.
 New development may alter local drainage patterns and change flood potential. 267 County of Santa Clara Office of Sustainability and Climate Action. (2015, August). Silicon Valley 2.0 Climate Adaptation Guidebook.
https://sustainability.sccgov.org/sites/g/files/exjcpb976/files/documents/1_150803_Final%20Guidebook_W_Appendic es.pdf
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 298
 Warming temperature from climate change may alter the frequency and intensity of storms and increase the associated runoff.

13.5.1 Population
Vulnerable Populations
A geographic analysis of demographics using the Hazus model identified populations vulnerable to the flood hazard as follows:
 Economically Disadvantaged Populations: It is estimated that 2.76 percent of the people within the 100-year floodplain are economically disadvantaged, defined as having household incomes of $20,000 or less.
 Population over 64 Years Old: It is estimated that 20,723 persons or 11.7 percent of the population in the census blocks that intersect the 100-year floodplain are over 64 years old.  Population under 16 Years Old: It is estimated that 38,185 persons or 19.9 percent of the population within census blocks located in or near the 100-year floodplain are under 18 years of age.

Commuters and visitors are also vulnerable to the flood hazard, in part because they may not be as familiar with evacuation routes and areas that typically flood. Commuters whose workplaces or major transportation routes are in or near the 1-percent-annual-chance flood zone may be especially vulnerable.

The most at-risk members of society often experience the greatest losses from disasters. Socially vulnerable populations often live in high-risk floodplains due to lack of affordable housing, historical inequitable land use and housing practices, and other societal barriers. Disasters can exacerbate preexisting racial and social disparities. According to Plan Bay Area 2050, homes in Equity Priority Communities may be over 50% more likely to experience flooding from sea level rise.267F 268
Estimated Impacts on Persons and Households
Impacts on persons and households in the OA were estimated for the 10-, 1-, and 0.2-percent-annualchance flood events through the Level 2 Hazus analysis. Table 96 summarizes the results.

Table 96: Estimated Flood Impact on Persons
Jurisdiction
Number of Displaced Persons Number of Persons Requiring Short-Term Shelter
10%
Annual
Chance
Flood
1%
Annual
Chance
Flood

0.2%
Annual
Chance
Flood
10% Annual
Chance
Flood
1% Annual
Chance
Flood

0.2%
Annual
Chance
Flood
Campbell 2,297 3,796 5,047 106 204 232
Cupertino 0 1,078 1,543 0 199 284
Gilroy 5,343 9,782 13,209 304 443 581
Los Altos 0 11 21 0 1 1
Los Altos Hills 0 0 0 0 0 0
268 Plan Bay Area. (2021, October). Final Plan Bay Area 2050. https://www.planbayarea.org/finalplan2050 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 299
Jurisdiction
Number of Displaced Persons Number of Persons Requiring Short-Term Shelter
10%
Annual
Chance
Flood
1%
Annual
Chance
Flood

0.2%
Annual
Chance
Flood
10% Annual
Chance
Flood
1% Annual
Chance
Flood

0.2%
Annual
Chance
Flood
Los Gatos 571 980 1140 48 53 85
Milpitas 4,288 8,115 13,191 304 451 592
Monte Sereno 0 0 0 0 0 0
Morgan Hill 1,424 2,700 3,304 32 32 38
Mountain View 1,505 4,056 6,842 51 244 336
Palo Alto 313 392 3,872 58 72 137
San José 54,856 115,365 192,561 3,879 7,005 11,625
Santa Clara (city) 10,888 17,583 35,621 456 678 1,161
Saratoga 454 1,738 2,022 44 67 73
Sunnyvale 3,054 12,386 21,405 85 448 730
Unincorporated
County
1,965 3,522 4,839 90 123 149
Total 86,958 181,504 304,617 5,457 10,020 16,024
Public Health and Safety
Floods and their aftermath present numerous threats to public health and safety:
 Unsafe food: Floodwaters contain disease-causing bacteria, dirt, oil, human and animal waste, and farm and industrial chemicals. Their contact with food items, including food crops in agricultural lands, can make that food unsafe to eat. Refrigerated and frozen foods are affected during power outages caused by flooding. Foods in cardboard, plastic bags, jars, bottles, and paper packaging may be unhygienic with mold contamination.  Contaminated drinking and washing water and poor sanitation: Flooding impairs clean water sources with pollutants. The pollutants also saturate into the groundwater. Flooded wastewater treatment plants can be overloaded, resulting in backflows of raw sewage. Private wells can be contaminated by floodwaters. Private sewage disposal systems can become a cause of infection if they or overflow.
 Mosquitoes and animals: Floods provide new breeding grounds for mosquitoes in wet areas and stagnant pools. The public should dispose of dead animals that can carry viruses and diseases only in accordance with guidelines issued by local animal control authorities.

Leptospirosis—a bacterial disease associated predominantly with rats—often accompanies floods in developing countries, although the risk is low in industrialized regions unless cuts or wounds have direct contact with disease-contaminated floodwaters or animals.  Mold and mildew: Excessive exposure to mold and mildew can cause flood victims—especially those with allergies and asthma—to contract upper respiratory diseases, triggering cold-like symptoms. Molds grow in as short a period as 24 to 48 hours in wet and damp areas of buildings and homes that have not been cleaned after flooding, such as water-infiltrated walls, floors, carpets, toilets, and bathrooms. Very small mold spores can be easily inhaled by human bodies and, in large enough quantities, cause allergic reactions, asthma episodes, and other respiratory problems. Infants, children, elderly people, and pregnant women are considered most vulnerable to mold-induced health problems.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 300
 Carbon monoxide poisoning: In the event of power outages following floods, some people use alternative fuels for heating or cooking in enclosed or partly enclosed spaces, such as small gasoline engines, stoves, generators, lanterns, gas ranges, charcoal, or wood. Built-up carbon monoxide from these sources can poison people and animals.  Hazards when reentering and cleaning flooded homes and buildings: Flooded buildings can pose significant health hazards to people entering them. Electrical power systems can become hazardous. Gas leaks can trigger fire and explosion. Flood debris—such as broken bottles, wood, stones, and walls—may cause injuries to those cleaning damaged buildings. Containers of hazardous chemicals may be buried under flood debris. Hazardous dust and mold can circulate through a building and be inhaled by those engaged in cleanup and restoration.  Mental stress and fatigue: People who live through a devastating flood can experience longterm psychological impact. The expense and effort required to repair flood-damaged homes places severe financial and psychological burdens on the people affected. Post-flood recovery can cause, anxiety, anger, depression, lethargy, hyperactivity, and sleeplessness. There is also a long-term concern among the affected that their homes can be flooded again in the future.

Current loss estimation models such as Hazus are not equipped to measure public health impacts such as these. The best preparation for these effects includes awareness that they can occur, education of the public on prevention, and planning to deal with them during responses to flood events.

13.5.2 Property
Structures and Contents
Hazus calculates losses to structures from flooding by looking at depth of flooding and type of structure.

Using historical flood insurance claim data, Hazus estimates the percentage of damage to structures and their contents by applying established damage functions to an inventory. The analysis is summarized in Table 97, Table 98, and Table 99 for the 10-, 1-, and 0.2-percent-annual-chance flood events, respectively.

Table 97: Loss Estimates for 10-Percent-Annual-Chance Flood Jurisdiction Structures
Impacteda
Estimated Loss Associated with Flood % of Total
Replacement
Structure Contents Total Value
Campbell 278 $46,559,000 $43,284,000 $140,698,000 1.60
Cupertino 0 $0 $0 $0 0
Gilroy 382 $96,223,000 $165,308,000 $574,813,000 4.86
Los Altos 0 $0 $0 $0 0
Los Altos Hills 0 $0 $0 $0 0
Los Gatos 17 $16,191,000 $22,610,000 $109,895,000 1.14
Milpitas 234 $44,056,000 $47,811,000 $224,231,000 1.40
Monte Sereno 0 $0 $0 $0 0
Morgan Hill 373 $30,975,000 $18,233,000 $67,576,000 .63 Mountain View 112 $22,645,000 $33,678,000 $140,380,000 .83 Palo Alto 40 $7,892,000 $163,325,000 $91,985,000 .45
San José 4,541 $1,187,925,000 $2,015,872,000 $6,140,963,000 3.56 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 301
Jurisdiction Structures
Impacteda
Estimated Loss Associated with Flood % of Total
Replacement
Structure Contents Total Value
Santa Clara
(city)
918 $178,713,000 $233,150,000 $766,887,000 2.77
Saratoga 74 $21,643,000 $16,633,000 $51,942,000 .56
Sunnyvale 245 $41,315,000 $68,059,000 $216,544,000 .74
Unincorporated
County
104 $67,392,000 $67,064,000 $255,548,000 1.25
Total 7,318 $1,761,529,000 $2,895,027,000 $8,781,462,000 2.30 Note: Values shown are accurate for comparison of results in this plan. See Section 6 for discussion of data limitations.
a
Impacted structures are those with finished floor elevations below the flood event water surface elevation. These structures are the most likely to receive significant damage in a flood event.

Table 98: Loss Estimates for 1-Percent-Annual-Chance Flood Jurisdiction Structures
Impacteda
Estimated Loss Associated with Flood % of Total
Replaceme
nt
Value Structure Contents Total
Campbell 478 $91,932,000 $80,508,000 $257,047,000 2.92
Cupertino 61 $24,021,000 $18,081,000 $59,916,000 .42
Gilroy 1,116 $225,196,000 $420,220,000 $1,346,610,000 11.38 Los Altos 0 $1,351,000 $710,000 $2,234,000 .03
Los Altos Hills 0 $0 $0 $0 0.00
Los Gatos 131 $30,840,000 $42,934,000 $168,827,000 1.76 Milpitas 797 $115,342,000 $137,652,000 $548,317,000 3.43 Monte Sereno 0 $0 $0 $0 0
Morgan Hill 722 $115,482,000 $81,114,000 $259,011,000 2.4 Mountain View 414 $75,707,000 $109,233,000 $416,222,000 2.46 Palo Alto 70 $18,739,000 $40,559,000 $157,789,000 .79
San José 12,496 $3,271,469,000 $5,761,915,000 $15,986,581,000 9.27 Santa Clara
(city)
1,999 $360,286,000 $476,086,000 $1,462,841,000 5.29
Saratoga 276 $100,151,000 $73,527,000 $226,648,000 2.42 Sunnyvale 1,520 $208,800,000 $260,543,000 $832,836,000 2.84 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 302
Jurisdiction Structures
Impacteda
Estimated Loss Associated with Flood % of Total
Replaceme
nt
Value Structure Contents Total
Unincorporated
County
346 $157,862,000 $178,277,000 $682,246,000 3.33
Total 20,366 $4,797,178,000 $7,681,359,000 $22,407,125,000 5.87 Note: Values shown are accurate for comparison of results in this plan. See Section 6 for discussion of data limitations.
a
Impacted structures are those with finished floor elevations below the flood event water surface elevation. These structures are the most likely to receive significant damage in a flood event.

Table 99: Loss Estimates for 0.2-Percent-Annual-Chance Flood Jurisdiction Structures
Impacteda
Estimated Loss Associated with Flood % of Total
Replacement
Structure Contents Total Value
Campbell 666 $127,488,000 $110,733,000 $355,863,000 4.04 Cupertino 83 $36,263,000 $29,154,000 $94,619,000 0.66
Gilroy 1,469 $319,375,000 $641,660,000 $2,015,006,000 17.03 Los Altos 0 $1,791,000 $948,000 $3,090,000 0.04
Los Altos Hills 0 $0 $0 $0 0.00
Los Gatos 147 $39,193,000 $56,508,000 $212,717,000 2.21 Milpitas 1,197 $191,075,000 $242,248,000 $934,245,000 5.84 Monte Sereno 0 $0 $0 $0 0
Morgan Hill 837 $161,794,000 $109,502,000 $350,641,000 3.25 Mountain View 732 $119,699,000 $166,238,000 $669,226,000 3.95 Palo Alto 495 $76,861,000 $100,127,000 $367,056,000 1.81 San José 22,052 $5,656,110,000 $10,606,664,000 $28,947,287,000 16.79 Santa Clara
(city) 4,635 $812,021,000 $1,177,901,000 $3,760,129,000 13.60 Saratoga 357 $127,579,000 $96,493,000 $289,244,000 3.09 Sunnyvale 2,478 $351,074,000 $419,774,000 $1,361,761,000 4.64 Unincorporated
County 541 $225,387,000 $262,239,000 $929,177,000 4.53
Total 35,689 $8,245,710,000 $14,020,189,000 $40,290,061,000 10.56 Note: Values shown are accurate for comparison of results in this plan. See Section 6 for discussion of data limitations.
a
Impacted structures are those with finished floor elevations below the flood event water surface elevation. These structures are the most likely to receive significant damage in a flood event.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 303
Key results are as follows:
 There would be up to $8.7 billion of flood loss from a 10-percent-annual-chance flood event in the OA. This represents 2.3 percent of the total replacement value for the OA.  There would be up to $22.4 billion of flood loss from a 1-percent-annual-chance flood event in the OA. This represents 5.87 percent of the total replacement value for the OA.  There would be $40.29 billion of flood loss from a 0.2-percent-annual-chance flood event in the OA. This represents 10.56 percent of the total replacement value.

Structures permitted or built in the OA before the initial FIRM date are called “pre-FIRM” structures, and structures built after the FIRM date are called “post-FIRM.” The insurance rate is different for the two types of structures. Generally, it can be assumed that unmitigated pre-FIRM structures are more vulnerable to flooding than post-FIRM.

Flood-Caused Debris
Left over debris from flooding can be costly to remove and have significant consequences if not dealt with properly. The Hazus analysis estimated the amount of flood-caused debris within the OA generated by flooding, as summarized in Table 100. The model breaks debris into three general categories; Finishes (dry wall, insulation, etc.), Structural (wood, brick, etc.), and Foundations (concrete slab, concrete block, rebar, etc.).

Table 100: Estimated Flood-Caused Debris
Annual Flood
Chance
Finishes (Tons) Structure (Tons) Foundation
(Tons)
Total Debris
(Tons)
10% AnnualChance Flood24,095 3,963 3,847 31,905
1% AnnualChance Flood82,351 8,119 7,945 98,415

0.2% AnnualChance Flood162,896 14,307 14,287 191,490
Flood Insurance
Flood Insurance Statistics
Table 101 lists flood insurance statistics that help identify vulnerability in the OA. All 16 municipal planning partners participate in the NFIP, with 12,159 flood insurance policies providing $3.6 billion in insurance coverage. According to FEMA statistics, 1,556 flood insurance claims were paid between November 1978 and February 23, 2023, for a total of $22,996,576, an average of $14,779 per claim.

Properties constructed after a FIRM has been adopted are eligible for reduced flood insurance rates.

Such structures are less vulnerable to flooding since they were constructed after regulations and codes were adopted to decrease vulnerability. Properties built before a FIRM is adopted are more vulnerable to flooding because they do not meet code or are located in hazardous areas. The first FIRMs in the OA were available in 1975.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 304
Table 101: Flood Insurance Statistics268 F
269
Jurisdiction
Date of
Entry
Initial
FIRM
Effective
Date
# of Flood
Insurance
Policies
as of
2/23/2023
Total
Coverage
Total
Annual
Premium
Claims,
11/1978
to
2/23/2023
Value of
Claims
paid,
11/1978 to
2/23/2023
Campbell 06/30/1976 28 8,541,000 16,222 1 $0
Cupertino 04/18/1975 64 20,042,400 64,687 20 $812,171
Gilroy 06/04/1976 100 46,698,600 140,441 33 $287, 117
Los Altos 09/24/1976 101 31,769,400 79,333 13 $5,896
Los Altos Hills 11/26/1976 34 11,036,000 26,775 16 $45,641 Los Gatos 02/27/1976 66 20,606,800 39,411 17 $51,957
Milpitas 03/28/1975 1,025 288,494,700 1,062,641 69 $27,829 Monte Sereno 05/18/2009 9 3,150,000 5,123 4 $41,974
Morgan Hill 06/18/1980 309 93,061,100 285,955 74 $603,444 Mountain View 09/19/1975 344 117,867,000 263,363 8 $8,501 Palo Alto 09/06/1989 2,377 655, 737, 600 2,601,795 474 $8,936,790 San José 04/09/1976 4,872 1,351,586,300 4,412,960 626 $10,284,648 Santa Clara
(city)
02/11/1977 683 222,286,800 643,583 29 $264,753
Saratoga 11/28/1975 67 22,554,900 58,630 17 $53,676
Sunnyvale 12/05/1975 527 183,134,600 543,354 10 $68,655 Unincorporated
County
06/20/1978 276 74,048,500 410,772 130 $1,654,709
Unknown - 1,440 382,986,000 1,555,609 15 135,932
Total 12,322 $2,877,864,100 $12,210,654 1,556 $22,996,576 This data likely has some limitations. The “Unknown” category was not included in the 2016 dataset used in the 2017 Hazard Mitigation Plan. It also reflects a decrease in policies since the 2017 plan in every jurisdiction except Los Altos, which gained a total of 18 policies, for a total of 5,000 less policies in force across the OA. It is unclear if this is due to the rising cost of flood insurance, voluntary suspension of flood insurance, or another reason.

NFIP Participation
As participating communities, each jurisdiction within the OA was required to adopt floodplain management criteria via local regulations that meets NFIP minimum standards. Multiple communities have adopted regulations that exceed these standards. Further detail is included in each annex in Volume II and in the following table. The special districts and fire department that participated in this plan update are not eligible to participate in the NFIP.
269 FEMA Region IX on 2/23/2023
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 305
Table 102: Date of Floodplain Management Regulation Adoption Jurisdiction Adoption Date
City of Campbell January, 2014
City of Cupertino June, 2016
City of Gilroy January, 2017
City of Los Altos March, 2009
City of Milpitas November, 1995
City of Morgan Hill September, 2017
City of Mountain View April, 2023
City of Palo Alto 2004
City of San Jose April, 2009
City of Santa Clara June, 2023
City of Saratoga 1996
City of Sunnyvale November, 1994 – anticipated update Oct. 2023 County of Santa Clara April, 2009
Town of Los Altos Hills November, 2001
Town of Los Gatos 2003
Repetitive Loss and Severe Repetitive Loss
A repetitive loss property is defined by FEMA as an NFIP-insured property that has experienced any of the following since 1978, regardless of any changes in ownership:
 Four or more paid losses in excess of $1,000.
 Two paid losses in excess of $1,000 within any rolling 10-year period.  Three or more paid losses that equal or exceed the current value of the insured property.

A severe repetitive loss property is further defined as follows:
 Four or more paid losses in excess of $5,000 each, with the cumulative amount of such claim payments exceeding $20,000.
 At least two separate claim payments made, with the cumulative amount of the building portion of such claims exceeding the market value of the building.  At least two of the above referenced claims occurred within any rolling 10-year period and must be more than 10 days apart.

Repetitive loss properties make up only 1 percent of flood insurance policies in force nationally, yet they account for 25 to 30 percent of the nation’s flood insurance claim payments. According the draft 2023 State of California Hazard Mitigation Plan, 34.8 percent of the repetitive properties in the state are located outside of the SFHA. The government has instituted programs encouraging communities to identify and mitigate the causes of repetitive losses. The key identifiers for repetitive loss properties are the existence of flood insurance policies and claims paid by the policies. This doesn’t include properties which have flooded repeatedly but don’t have insurance. Over 50 percent of severe repetitive loss structures nationally are estimated to be without NFIP coverage.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 306
FEMA-sponsored programs, such as the CRS, require participating communities to identify repetitive loss areas. A repetitive loss area is the portion of a floodplain holding structures that FEMA has identified as meeting the definition of repetitive loss. Identifying repetitive loss areas helps to identify structures that are at risk but are not on FEMA’s list of repetitive loss structures because no flood insurance policy was in force at the time of loss.

FEMA’s list of repetitive loss properties identifies four such properties in the OA as of February 23, 2023.

The breakdown of the properties by jurisdiction is presented in Table 103. With the potential for flood events annually, all of the mapped floodplain is considered to be susceptible to repetitive flooding.

Table 103: Repetitive Loss Properties
Jurisdiction
Number of
Repetitive
Loss
Properties
Type of Repetitive
Loss Properties
Number of
Severe
Repetitive
Loss
Properties
Type of Severe
Repetitive Loss
Properties
Cupertino 3
Single Family (1)
Other Nonresidential (2) - -
Los Gatos 1 2–4 Family (1) - -
Morgan Hill 2 Single Family (2) 4
Single Family (2)
Business (1)
Other Nonresidential (1)
Palo Alto 4
Single Family (3)
Other Nonresidential (1) 1 Business (1)
San José 6 Single Family (6) 1 Single Family (1)
Sunnyvale 1 Other Nonresidential (1) - -
Unincorporated
County 8 Single Family (8) 3 Single Family (3)
Unknown 1 2-4 Family (1) - -
Total 25
Single Family (20)
Other Nonresidential (4)
2-4 Family (2)
9 Single Family (6)
Business (2)
Other Nonresidential (1)
Note: Based on FEMA Region IX Report of Repetitive Losses, 2/23/2023.

Substantial Improvement/Substantial Damage
In order to be a part of the NFIP, participating jurisdictions commit to implementing substantial improvement / substantial damage provisions of their floodplain management regulations after an event.

According to FEMA, these terms are defined as:
 Substantial Improvement means any reconstruction, rehabilitation, addition or other improvement to a structure, the total cost of which equals or exceed 50 percent of the market value of the structure before the state of construction of the improvement.  Substantial damage means damage of any origin sustained by a structure whereby the cost of restoring the structure to its before damaged condition would equal or excel 50 percent of the market value of the structure before the damage occurred.

Multiple jurisdictions within the OA have adopted higher standards, including a repetitive loss or cumulative damage. These higher standards are described further in Volume II in addition to additional information on how these provisions are implemented.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 307
Table 104: Substantial Damage/Substantial Improvement Implementation Jurisdiction Responsible Party Higher Standard?
City of Campbell Floodplain Administrator No
City of Cupertino Building Official Yes
City of Gilroy Floodplain Administrator Yes
City of Los Altos Floodplain Administrator, Building
Official
No
City of Milpitas City Manager, Floodplain
Administrator
Yes
City of Morgan Hill Floodplain Administrator Yes
City of Mountain View Floodplain Administrator or
designee
Yes
City of Palo Alto Floodplain Administrator No
City of San Jose Floodplain Manager, other
departments/divisions including
public works as necessary
No
City of Santa Clara Floodplain Administrator, Building
Official
No
City of Saratoga City Manager or designee, usually
someone from Public Works or
Community Development
No
City of Sunnyvale Floodplain Administrator, Building
Official
No
County of Santa Clara Yes
Town of Los Altos Hills Floodplain Administrator No
Town of Los Gatos Floodplain Administrator No

13.5.3 Critical Facilities and Infrastructure
Percentage of damage and functional down-time estimates were not generated for critical facilities and infrastructures in the flood scenarios. However, a count of facilities within the flood hazard boundaries was obtained using the Hazus facility inventory (Tables 92-94). Replacement values provided in Hazus were used to estimate the flood loss potential to critical facilities exposed to the flood risk. The Hazus critical facility results are presented in Table 105, Table 106, and Table 107.

Table 105: Estimated Damage to Critical Facilities and Infrastructure from the 10% Annual Chance Flood
Type of Critical Facility Number of
Facilities Affected Estimated Replacement Cost
Essential Facilities 24 $236,048,440
Transportation 106 $474,684,230
Utilities 1 $1,030,643,100
Community Assets 29 Not Available
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 308
Type of Critical Facility Number of
Facilities Affected Estimated Replacement Cost
Hazardous Materials 54 Not Available
Total/Average 214 $1,741,375,770
Note: N/A = Not Applicable.

Table 106: Estimated Damage to Critical Facilities and Infrastructure from the 1% Annual Chance Flood
Type of Critical Facility Number of
Facilities Affected Estimated Replacement Cost
Essential Facilities 58 $871,412,940
Transportation 185 $959,350,260
Utilities 3 $1,070,055,100
Community Assets 64 Not Available
Hazardous Materials 78 Not Available
Total/Average 388 $2,900,818,300
Note: N/A = Not Applicable.

Table 107: Estimated Damage to Critical Facilities and Infrastructure from the 0.2% Annual Chance Flood
Type of Critical Facility Number of Facilities
Affected Estimated Replacement Cost
Essential Facilities 89 $3,478,003,120
Transportation 244 $1,348,101,860
Utilities 10 $2,057,661,430
Community Assets 94 Not Available
Hazardous Materials 131 Not Available
Total/Average 568 $6,883,766,410
Note: N/A = Not Applicable.

These tables indicate that a significant number of important assets are currently located within the 10-, 100-, and 500-year floodplains. A breakdown of the number of critical facilities at risk for each jurisdiction can be found in Table 92 through Table 94. Flooding could impact response facilities such as fire and policies stations which may directly damage facilities and equipment within buildings, as well as impact their ability to provide response activities in the immediate aftermath of a flood. Several schools are also in flood hazard zones. Transportation networks such as roadways and railways may be damaged or become temporarily impassable during a flood, which may provide further difficulty for people displaced from their homes and seeking shelter. Numerous other community facilities included in the community assets category are also in hazard zones, which indicates a variety of community support services may disrupted by flooding. Facilities with hazardous materials on site may be compromised by flooding, which may result in contamination of floodwaters and dispersal of harmful materials. The City of San Jose, the City of Gilroy, and the unincorporated county have the highest number of critical facilities and infrastructure at risk to flooding.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 309

13.5.4 Environment
Flooding is a natural event, and floodplains provide many natural and beneficial functions. Nonetheless, flooding can impact the environment in negative ways. Migrating fish can wash into roads or over dikes into flooded fields, with no possibility of escape. Pollution from roads, such as oil, and hazardous materials can wash into rivers and streams. During floods, these can settle onto normally dry soils, polluting them for agricultural uses. Human development such as bridge abutments and levees, and logjams from timber harvesting can increase stream bank erosion, causing rivers and streams to migrate into non-natural courses.

Additionally, while the vulnerability assessment typically focuses on human vulnerability to flood events, the opposite is also worth noting. Floodplains have many natural and beneficial functions; however, due to negative impacts of floods, many structural and other measures have been devised to limit how far a floodplain can extend. Disruption of natural systems can have long-term consequences for entire regions; however, this potential impact has only recently been noted. Some well-known, water-related functions of floodplains include the following269 F
270:
 Natural flood and erosion control.  Filter nutrients and impurities from runoff.  Provide flood storage and conveyance.  Process organic wastes.  Reduce flood velocities.  Moderate temperatures of water.  Reduce flood peaks.  Groundwater recharge.
 Reduce sedimentation.  Promote infiltration and aquifer recharge.  Surface water quality maintenance.  Reduce frequency and duration of low surface flows
Areas within the floodplain that typically provide these natural functions are wetlands, riparian areas, sensitive areas, and habitats for rare and endangered species. In the northern end of the county, wetlands (both Bay Wetlands and Freshwater Wetlands) will be impacted by flooding adjacent to the coastline. In the southern end of the county, flooding of the Pajaro River watershed would impact Grassland, Riparian, and Freshwater Wetland habitats.270F 271 Riparian habitat would be impacted throughout
the county; however, this habitat type is naturally adapted to withstand some degree of seasonal flooding.

13.5.5 Economic Impact
Locations of flooding will experience the heaviest economic impact. Within these areas, renovations of commercial buildings may be necessary, disrupting associated services. Additionally, significant damage within agricultural areas may occur with destruction of crops and other agricultural products. The tourism industry may also be affected by major flood events, as popular vacation areas tend to overlap flood hazard zones. Finally, flooding can cause extensive damage to public utilities and disruptions to delivery of services. Loss of power and communications may occur; and drinking water and wastewater treatment facilities may be temporarily out of operation.
270 FEMA. (2022, April 1). Benefits of Natural Floodplains. https://www.fema.gov/floodplain-management/wildlifeconservation/benefits-natural 271 Santa Clara Valley Water District. (2017, October). Local Hazard Mitigation Plan. Microsoft Word - R14163 2017 FINAL LOCAL HAZARD MITIGATION PLAN v. 04-09-21 (amazonaws.com) Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 310

13.6 Future Trends in Development
Pre-pandemic, Santa Clara County had been one of the state’s fastest growing counties, averaging a

1.21-percent increase in population per year from 2005 through 2015. The Silicon Valley job market grew, and many young tech employees elected to live in an urban environment rather than commute from the suburbs. The area has not recovered economically since the pandemic. The population decreased slightly from 2021 to 2022, and employment levels for almost all major areas of the economy were still below pre-pandemic levels at last indication.271F
272 Almost 90,000 tech industry employees were laid off in 2022 alone. The Silicon Valley housing market has cooled, but not crashed. A decrease in population and employment, particularly in high-income industries, may reduce the amount of new development in the SFHA. The Santa Clara County Planning Department Website did not show any significant development being proposed in the SFHA in the unincorporated areas of the county at the time of this writing. It is unclear if these trends will continue over the next five years.

Any areas of growth could be impacted by the flood hazard if located within the identified hazard areas.

The planning partners have appropriate policies, plans, and programs in place to address future growth within flood hazard areas. The SCVWD intends to discourage development within vulnerable areas and/or to encourage higher regulatory standards on the local level. Additionally, all municipal planning partners are participants in the NFIP and have adopted flood damage prevention ordinances which regulate development in high-hazard areas. All municipal planning partners also have general plans that address frequently flooded areas in their safety elements. All partners have committed to linking their general plans to this hazard mitigation plan. More information on planning partners’ development is available in Volume 2 of this plan.

With around 60 percent of communities in the OA participating in the CRS program, there is incentive to adopt consistent, appropriate, higher regulatory standards in areas with the highest degree of flood risk.

Additionally, there are many active regional partners involved in land use planning and risk reduction in the Bay Area. Plan Bay Area 2050 is the nine-county San-Francisco Bay Area plan for long-term development. This plan includes 35 strategies for housing, the economy, transportation, and the environment. It maintains urban growth boundaries in order to curb urban sprawl and identifies other strategies to reduce risk from flooding. The 2015 Stronger Housing, Safer Communities report led by ABAG developed a series of strategies for developing safe, smart growth in the Bay Area, including recommendations for flood protection measures.

The County of Santa Clara’s Office of Sustainability and Climate Action has also developed the Silicon Valley 2.0 Climate Adaptation Guidebook which provides additional recommendations and examples.

Jurisdictions in the OA can expand upon these and other resources to make risk-informed land use and flood mitigation decisions in light of future growth.

13.7 Scenario
Historically, floods have regularly affected the Santa Clara County OA. The OA can expect noteworthy flooding about once a year, with a flash flood every 2 to 3 years. Duration and intensity of heavy winter rains and atmospheric river events that cause flooding may increase due to climate change. The floodplains mapped and identified for the Santa Clara County OA will continue to take the brunt of these floods. OA residents prepare themselves for flooding by seeking and receiving information, and by pursuing mitigation. Impacts of flood events should decrease as the OA continues to promote and implement hazard mitigation and preparedness.
272 Silicon Valley Indicators. (n.d.). Data about Silicon Valley’s Economy and Community Health. https://siliconvalleyindicators.org/
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 311
The worst-case scenario would be a series of heavy rains or storm events during an atmospheric river event, particularly if the rains also occur at high tide. These rains could flood numerous areas within a short time. This could overwhelm the response and floodplain management capability within the OA, as the OA would be subject immediately to flash flooding and coastal flooding, with subsequent influences on the County’s streams. Major roads could be blocked, preventing critical access for many residents and critical functions. High in-channel flows could cause water courses to scour, possibly washing out roads and creating more isolation problems. In the event of multi-basin flooding, Santa Clara County would not be able to make repairs quickly enough to restore critical facilities and assets.

13.8 Issues
Important issues associated with floods in the OA include the following:
 The extent of the flood-protection currently provided by flood control facilities (dams, dikes, and levees) is not known due to the lack of an established national policy on flood protection standards.
 The levee system within the OA is not consistently adequate to mitigate effects of a 1-percent annual chance flood.
 The risk associated with the flood hazard overlaps the risk associated with other hazards such as earthquake, landslide, mud slides and fishing losses. This provides an opportunity to seek mitigation alternatives with multiple objectives that can reduce risk for multiple hazards.  There is no consistency of land-use practices and floodplain management scope within the OA.  How climate change will affect flood conditions in the OA is uncertain.  More information is needed on flood risk to support the concept of risk-based analysis of capital projects.
 There needs to be a sustained effort to gather historical damage data, such as high-water marks on structures and damage reports, to measure the cost-effectiveness of future mitigation projects.  Ongoing flood hazard mitigation will require funding from multiple sources.  There needs to be a coordinated hazard mitigation effort between jurisdictions affected by flood hazards in the OA.
 Floodplain residents need to continue to be educated about flood preparedness and the resources available during and after floods.
 The concept of residual risk should be considered in the design of future capital flood control projects and should be communicated with residents living in the floodplain.  The promotion of flood insurance as a means of protecting private property owners from the economic impacts of frequent flood events should continue.  Existing floodplain-compatible uses such as agricultural and open space need to be maintained.

There is constant pressure to convert these existing uses to more intense uses within the OA during times of moderate to high growth.
 The economy affects a jurisdiction’s ability to manage its floodplains. Budget cuts and personnel losses can strain resources needed to support floodplain management.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 13: Flood 312
Table 108: EMAP Consequence Analysis: Flood
Subject Ranking Impacts/Flood
Public Minimal to
severe
The localized impact is expected to be severe for persons living within the inundation area. Residents of the SFHA are most at risk from flooding. Flooding can result in injury, loss of life, and the loss of property and livelihood. Daily life of residents, visitors, and commuters would be disrupted,
particularly if evacuations are necessary. Flood waters could carry containments which impact public health. Water that is slow to recede could act as a habitat for disease-carrying insects. The public would be exposed to risk during flood clean-up, including mold. Vulnerable populations may be disproportionally impacted by a flood event and have unique response and recovery needs. There may long-term public health consequences of a flood event.

Responders Minimal to
moderate
Responders may be responsible for supporting evacuations, closing roads, assisting injured members of the public, and managing the overall incident. Depending on the event,
responders may play a significant role in locating and
assisting survivors after the flood. During the course of their duties, responders will likely face increased risk of personal injury. They may be directly exposed to the flood water, including any containments.

Continuity of
Operations (including
continue delivery of
services)
Minimal to
severe
Temporary relocation may be necessary if inundation affects government facilities. Delivery of services could be affected if there is any disruption to facilities, roads, and/or utilities due to the inundation or cascading impacts.

Property, Facilities, and
Infrastructure
Minimal to
severe
The localized impact could be severe for property, facilities and infrastructure that are inundated. Additional damage or disruption could be caused by debris, road closures, and stormwater issues. Water and wastewater treatments plants may be overloaded.

Environment Minimal to
severe
Flooding can provide benefits to environment. However, it also can potentially expose the environment to containments, hazardous materials, silt, and debris. Flooding can damage or destroy natural habitats and wildlife like fish caught up in the flood water can die. Floods can additionally cause erosion, landslides, and changes to the watershed.

Economic Conditions Minimal to
severe
Impacts on the economy will greatly depend on the scope of the inundation and the amount of time it takes for the flood water to recede. A major flood event could be costly. There would be emergency response needs, disaster cleanup,
delays and disruption in services and transportation, and potential closure to local businesses due to direct flood losses or lack of employees or customers.

Public Confidence in
the Government
Minimal to
severe
The public’s confidence will vary, depending on the perception of the warning time, the information shared, and the time it takes for response and recovery. Accurate and timely
distribution of information before, during, and after the event will influence public trust.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 313
14 Landslide/Mass Movement
Definitions
 Landslide: The movement of masses of loosened rock and soil down a hillside or slope. Slope failures occur when the strength of the soils forming the slope is exceeded by the pressure, such as weight or saturation, acting upon them.
 Mass Movement: A collective term for landslides, debris flows, and sinkholes.  Mudslide (or Debris Flow): A river of rock, earth, organic matter, and other materials saturated with water. Mudslides develop in the soil overlying bedrock on sloping surfaces when water rapidly accumulates in the ground, such as during heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt. Water pressure in the pore spaces of the material increases to the point that the internal strength of the soil is drastically weakened. The soil’s reduced resistance can then easily be overcome by gravity, changing the earth into a flowing river of mud or “slurry.”

14.1 General Background
The U.S. Geological Survey defines landslides to include a wide range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris flows. Although gravity acting on an over-steepened slope is the primary reason for a landslide, there are other contributing factors.

Landslides and mudslides can be initiated by storms, earthquakes, fires, volcanic eruptions, or human modification of the land. They can move rapidly down slopes or through channels and can strike with little or no warning at avalanche speeds, posing a serious hazard to properties on or below hillsides.

When landslides occur—in response to such changes as increased water content, earthquake shaking, addition of load, or removal of downslope support—they deform and tilt the ground surface. The result can be destruction of foundations, offset of roads, breaking of underground pipes, or overriding of downslope property and structures.

The USGS defines land subsidence as the loss of surface elevation due to the removal of subsurface support. In California, the two principal causes for land subsidence are aquifer compaction due to excessive groundwater pumping and decomposition of wetland soils exposed to air after wetland conversion to farmland.

14.1.1 Landslide Types
Landslides are commonly categorized by the type of initial ground failure. Common types of slides are shown in Figure 65. The most common is the shallow colluvial slide, occurring particularly in response to intense, short-duration storms. The extent of landslides can range from mild to severe and are dependent on several factors, including the type of event. The largest and most destructive are deep-seated slides (greater than 10 to 15 feet deep), although they are less common than other types.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 314
Figure 66: Common Types of Landslides
Mudslides (or debris flows) are rivers of rock, earth, organic matter, and other soil materials saturated with water. They develop in the soil overlying bedrock on sloping surfaces when water rapidly accumulates in the ground, such as during heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt. Water pressure in the pore spaces of the material increases to the point that the internal strength of the soil is drastically weakened. The soil’s reduced resistance can then easily be overcome by gravity, changing the earth into a flowing river of mud.

A debris avalanche (see Figure 66) is a fast-moving debris flow that travels faster than about 10 miles per hour (mph). Speeds in excess of 20 mph are not uncommon, and speeds in excess of 100 mph, although rare, can occur. The slurry can travel miles from its source, growing as it descends, picking up trees, boulders, cars, and anything else in its path. Although these slides behave as fluids, they pack many times the hydraulic force of water due to the mass of material included in them. They can be among the most destructive events in nature.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 315
Figure 67: Typical Debris Avalanche Scar and Track27F
273
Landslides also include the following:
 Rock Falls: Blocks of rock that fall away from a bedrock unit without a rotational component.  Rock Topples: Blocks of rock that fall away from a bedrock unit with a rotational component.  Rotational Slumps: Blocks of fine-grained sediment that rotate and move down slope.  Transitional Slides: Sediments that move along a flat surface without a rotational component.  Earth Flows: Fine-grained sediments that flow downhill and typically form a fan structure.  Creep: A slow-moving landslide often only noticed through crooked trees and disturbed structures.
 Block Slides: Blocks of rock that slide along a slip plane as a unit down a slope.

14.1.2 Landslide Modeling
Two characteristics are essential to conducting an accurate risk assessment of the landslide hazard:
 The type of initial ground failure that occurs, as described above  The post-failure movement of the loosened material (“runout”), including travel distance and velocity
All current landslide models—those in practical applications and those more recently developed—use simplified hypothetical descriptions of mass movement to simulate the complex behavior of actual flow.

The models attempt to reproduce the general features of the moving mass of material through measurable factors, such as base shear, that define a system and determine its behavior. 273 California Department of Conservation. (n.d.). Hazards from “Mudslides” …Debris Avalanches and Debris Flows in Hillside and Wildfire Areas. https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/Pages/Publications/Note_33.aspx Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 316
Due to the lack of experimental data and the limited current knowledge about the behavior of the moving flows, landslide models use simplified parameters to account for complex aspects that may not be defined. These simplified parameters are not related to specific physical processes that can be directly measured, and there is a great deal of uncertainty in their definition. Some, but not all, models provide estimates of the level of uncertainty associated with the modeling approach.

Run-out modeling is complicated because the movement of materials may change over the course of a landslide event, depending on the initial composition, the extent of saturation by water, the ground shape of the path traveled and whether there is additional material incorporated during the event.273F 274

14.1.3 Landslide Causes
Mass movements are caused by a combination of geological and climate conditions, as well as encroaching urbanization. Vulnerable natural areas are affected by residential, agricultural, commercial, and industrial development and the infrastructure that supports it. The following factors can contribute to landslide: change in slope of the terrain, increased load on the land, shocks and vibrations, change in water content, groundwater movement, frost action, weathering of rocks, and removing or changing the type of vegetation covering slopes.

Excavation and Grading
Slope excavation is common in development of home sites or roads on sloping terrain. Grading can result in slopes that are steeper than the pre-existing natural slopes. These steeper slopes can be at an increased risk for landslides. The added weight of fill on slopes can also result in an increased landslide hazard. Small landslides can be common along roads, in either the road cut or the road fill. Landslides below new construction sites are indicators of the potential impacts stemming from excavation.

Drainage and Groundwater Alterations
Water flowing through or above ground is often the trigger for landslides. Any activity that augments the amount of water flowing into landslide-prone slopes can increase landslide hazards. Broken or leaking water or sewer lines can be especially problematic, as can water retention facilities that direct water onto slopes. However, even lawn irrigation and minor alterations to small streams in landslide-prone locations can result in damaging landslides. Ineffective stormwater management and excess runoff can also cause erosion and increase the risk of landslide hazards. Drainage can be affected naturally by the geology and topography of an area. Development that results in an increase in impervious surface impairs the ability of the land to absorb water and may redirect water to other areas. Channels, streams, flooding, and erosion on slopes all indicate potential slope problems.

Road and driveway drains, gutters, downspouts, and other constructed drainage facilities can concentrate and accelerate flow. Ground saturation and concentrated velocity flow are major causes of slope problems and may trigger landslides.

Changes in Vegetation
Removing vegetation from very steep slopes can increase landslide hazards. Areas that have experienced wildfire and land clearing for development may experience long periods of increased landslide hazard. In addition, woody debris in stream channels (both natural and man-made from logging) may cause the impacts from debris flows to be more severe. 274 McDougall, S. (2016). 2014 Canadian Geotechnical Colloquium: Landslide runout analysis — current practice and challenges. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 54(5): 605-620. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0104 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 317

14.1.4 Landslide Management
While small landslides are frequently a result of human activity, the largest landslides are often naturally occurring phenomena with little or no human contribution. The sites of large landslides are typically areas of previous landslide movement that are periodically reactivated by significant precipitation or seismic events. These naturally occurring landslides can disrupt roadways and other infrastructure lifelines, destroy private property, and cause flooding, bank erosion, and rapid channel migration.

Landslides can create immediate, critical threats to public safety. Engineering solutions to protect structures on or adjacent to large active landslides are often extremely or prohibitively expensive. Despite their destructive potential, landslides can serve beneficial functions to the natural environment. They supply sediment and large wood to the channel network and can contribute to complexity and dynamic channel behavior critical for aquatic and riparian ecological diversity. Effective landslide management should include the following elements:
 Continuing investigation to identify natural landslides, understand their mechanics, assess their risk to public health and welfare, and understand their role in ecological systems.  Regulation of development in or near existing landslides or areas of natural instability through the Santa Clara County Code and City ordinances.
 Preparation for emergency response to landslides to facilitate rapid, coordinated action among Santa Clara County, local cities, and state and federal agencies, and to provide emergency assistance to affected or at-risk citizens.
 Evaluation of options including landslide stabilization or structure relocation where landslides are identified that threaten critical public structures or infrastructure.

14.1.5 Land Subsidence Effects
Subsidence is one of the most diverse forms of ground failure, ranging from small or local collapses to broad regional lowering of the earth’s surface. The causes of subsidence, mostly associated with human activities, are as diverse as the forms of failure, and include dewatering (oxidation) of peat or organic soils, dissolution in limestone aquifers, first-time wetting of moisture-deficient low-density soils, natural compaction, liquefaction, crustal deformation, subterranean mining, and withdrawal of fluids (groundwater, petroleum, geothermal).

The compaction of susceptible aquifer systems caused by excessive groundwater pumping is the single largest cause of subsidence in California. The second largest cause of subsidence in California is the oxidation (decomposition) of organic soils.274F
275 Alteration to the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta in the late 1800s through the creation of levees and ground water pumping is known as the single largest human alternation of the Earths’ surface topography, but it left over 5,200 square miles of areas susceptible to subsidence, primarily from decomposition of organic carbon in the peat soils.275F 276
275 U.S. Geological Survey. (2018, October 18). Decomposition of Organic Soils in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/land-subsidence-in-california/science/decomposition-organic-soils-sacramentosan-joaquin 276 U.S. Geological Survey. (2018, November 29). Land Subsidence Along the California Aqueduct in West-central San Joaquin Valley, California. https://www.usgs.gov/publications/land-subsidence-along-california-aqueduct-westcentral-san-joaquin-valley-california Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 318
Aquifer Compaction
Aquifer compaction due to groundwater pumping affects both manmade infrastructures and natural systems. The greatest effects are on infrastructure that traverses a subsiding area. In the San Joaquin Valley, the main problems reported are related to water conveyance structures. Many water conveyance structures, including long stretches of the California Aqueduct, are gravity driven through the use of very small gradients; even minor changes in these gradients can cause reductions in designed flow capacity.

Managers of the canals, such as the California Department of Water Resources, the San Luis DeltaMendota Authority, the Bureau of Reclamation, and the Central California Irrigation District, have to repeatedly retrofit their canals to keep the water flowing, even at reduced amounts. Subsidence also affects roads, railways, bridges, pipelines, buildings, and wells.

Compaction of an aquifer system may permanently decrease the aquifer’s capacity to store water. Even when water levels rise, sediments can remain compacted; most compaction that occurs as a result of historically low groundwater levels is irreversible.

Additionally, as the topography of the land changes by varying amounts in different places, low areas, such as wetlands, change size and shape, migrate to lower elevations, or even disappear. Rivers may change course or erosion/deposition patterns to reach a new equilibrium.

Decomposition of Wetland Soils
The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta of California was once a great tidal freshwater marsh. It is blanketed by peat and peaty alluvium deposited where streams that originate in the Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, and South Cascade Range enter San Francisco Bay. In the late 1800s, levees were built along the stream channels, and the land thus protected from flooding was drained, cleared, and planted. The leveed tracts and islands help to protect water-export facilities in the southern Delta from saltwater intrusion by displacing water and maintaining favorable freshwater gradients. However, the decomposition of organic carbon in the peat soils causes land subsidence in the Delta and increases stresses on the levees. Ongoing subsidence behind the levees, where the land has been drained, exposed to the atmosphere, and planted, increases stresses on the levee system, making it less stable.

This threatens to damage agricultural and developed lands and degrade water quality in the massive water-transfer system.

14.2 Hazard Profile

14.2.1 Past Events
Losses from landslides are typically lower than those from flooding. However, in the El Niño storms of early 1998, the USGS documented $150 million in losses due to approximately 300 landslides in the Bay Area and Santa Clara County. The slides ranged from a 25-cubic-meter failure of engineered material to reactivation of the 13 million-cubic-meter Mission Peak earth flow complex in Alameda County.

Landslides have occurred in conjunction with earthquakes and heavy rains events in Santa Clara County.

Table 109 lists known landslide events that affected Santa Clara County between 1980 and 2023. Other landslides around the Bay Area near the OA, particularly in the Santa Cruz Mountains, are documented by the California Geological Survey.276F
277
277 California Geological Survey. (2011). Susceptibility to Deep-Seated Landslides in California. https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/Documents/Publications/Map-Sheets/MS_058.pdf Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 319
Table 109: Landslide Events in Santa Clara County27F
278,
278F
279,
279F
280,
280F
281,
281F
282
Dates of Event Event Type FEMA
Declaration Location Losses/Impacts
12/19/1981 to
1/08/1982
Severe storms, flood,
mudslides, high tide
651 San Francisco
Bay area
Prolonged heavy rains and saturated soils caused
numerous slope failures and mud flows on steep and
unstable slopes throughout the San Francisco Bay area.
1/21/1983 to
3/30/1983
Coastal storms, floods, slides,
tornadoes
677 San Francisco
Bay area
A landslide restricted Clayton Road to one lane just east of the community of Alum Rock. Another, on the east side of Milpitas, resulted in vertical and horizontal offset of a roadway.
4/24/1984 Morgan Hill Earthquake None Calaveras fault
east of San
José.

This 6.2 magnitude earthquake caused minor landslides
throughout the region.
10/17/1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake 845 San Andreas
fault near Loma
Prieta.

Landslides and rockslides in Santa Clara County on steep slopes in the Santa Cruz Mountains blocked roads,
damaged structures, and caused at least two deaths.
1/03/1995 to
2/10/1995
Severe winter storms,
flooding, landslides, mud
flows
1044 San Francisco
Bay area
Minor landslide damage in Santa Clara County was
attributed to heavy rains and saturated soils.
2/13/1995 to
4/19/1995
Severe winter storms,
flooding, landslides, mud
flows
1046 San Francisco
Bay area
Minor landslide damage in Santa Clara County was
attributed to heavy rains and saturated soils.
278 Association of Bay Area Governments. (2011). 2011 Bay Area Hazard Mitigation Plan. https://abag.ca.gov/2011-bay-area-hazard-mitigation-plan 279 U.S. Geological Survey. (1987). The Morgan Hill, California, Earthquake of April 24, 1984. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1639. https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1639/report.pdf
280 U.S. Geological Survey (1989). The Severity of an Earthquake. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq4/severity_text.html 281 NOAA. (2023). Storm Events Database. https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/ 282 California Department of Conservation. (n.d.). Reported California Landslides Database. https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/landslides Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 320
Dates of Event Event Type FEMA
Declaration Location Losses/Impacts
2/02/1998 to
4/30/1998
Severe Winter Storms and El
Nino Rainstorm
1203 San Francisco
Bay region
$7.6 million in Santa Clara County landslide damage
occurred mostly in the northern county, along the range front of the Santa Clara Valley. $6.1 million in damage was attributed to reactivation of three local landslides. The rest was attributed to small debris flows along road cuts or narrow canyon walls. In Alum Rock, the Penitencia Creek landslide caused extensive damage to water and sewer
lines and closed roads. Another landslide closed Clayton Road east of Alum Rock area. The third, near Old
Piedmont Road on the east side of Milpitas, had a
displacement near the toe of about 20 cm.
1/10/2017 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Montalvo
The third and final system in a string of Atmospheric River events between January 2 to 11. This system resulted in widespread roadway flooding and debris flows across the CWA. Black road at Gist Road is impassable due to major mudslide or rockslide.
1/18/2017 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Redwood
Estates
Three storm systems swept through the region between
January 18-23. The first occurred on January 18 as a cold front moved through. Heavy rain, widespread flooding, and debris flows were observed. Mud/rock/dirt slide blocking one lane heading towards Highway 17 from Bear Creek
Rd.
2/07/2017 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Los Gatos
An atmospheric river swept through the Bay Area
beginning on the night of Feb 6. This system produced
widespread roadway flooding, debris flows, and strong
winds. Mud slide reported at 18500 Limekiln Canyon Road. 2/09/2017 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Los Altos Hills
A cold front passed over the area Thursday Feb 9. There were strong winds ahead of the front and heavy rains
associated with the frontal passage that produced roadway flooding and debris flows. Mud/dirt/rockslide blocking south bound lanes Skyline Dr at Alpine.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 321
Dates of Event Event Type FEMA
Declaration Location Losses/Impacts
2/09/2017 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Saratoga
A cold front passed over the area Thursday, Feb 9. There were strong winds ahead of the front and heavy rains
associated with the frontal passage that produced roadway flooding and debris flows. Second mudslide in area and a tree down partially blocking 23600 SR9 near SavannahChanelle Vineyard. 2/20/2017 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Los Gatos
Potent AR brought copious amounts of rain to the region causing widespread flooding, debris flow, accidents, and over topping of reservoir spillways. Highway 17
southbound shut down due to a rockslide just north of
Lexington Reservoir.
1/06/2019 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Los Gatos
A vigorous cold front swept through California on January 5th bringing widespread rainfall and gusty winds. Unstable air behind the frontal passage and sufficient low level shear allowed shallow thunderstorms to develop over the coastal waters, some of which contained rotating cells. Two
waterspouts developed and made landfall as tornadoes on the 6th. Additionally, heavy rainfall and strong winds
caused roadway flooding, minor debris flows, and
numerous downed trees across the region. This storm
system caused two fatalities; one caused by a downed tree in Berkeley and another man died in Santa Rosa Creek
due to rising waters. Mud slide reported at Cats/Lexington south side on Hwy 17.
1/17/2019 Flood, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Saratoga
A moderate to strong atmospheric river impacted much of California in the middle of the month. A weak surface low developed off the coast on January 15th bringing moderate to heavy rainfall to portions of the region. Over the next 24 to 36 hours a second strong low pressure system moved to the north and east bringing heavy rain, destructive winds, high surf, flooding, and thunderstorms to the Bay Area.

Numerous reports were received of downed trees and
power lines. Winds were recorded between 60 and 100
mph. Downed trees resulted in two fatalities. Mud/dirt/rock at Mt Eden Rd and Orchard Meadow Dr blocking most of
roadway.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 322
Dates of Event Event Type FEMA
Declaration Location Losses/Impacts
2/04/2019 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Redwood
Estates
A mid/upper low with a very cold airmass moved through in early February bringing snow to lower elevation peaks
across the region prompting a rare Winter Weather
Advisory. Junipero Serra Peak received around a foot of snow. Rainfall just ahead of this system also brought
roadway flooding and minor debris flows. Mud, rock, and debris covered Hicks Road resulting in a multiday closure.

Highway 35 closed due to sinkhole.
2/10/2019 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Bells Station
A cold front moved through the region into February 10th lowering snow levels below 1500 ft, per the Bodega Bay
Profiler. The areas peaks saw another dusting to several inches of snow as a result with Mount Hamilton recording almost 6 inches. Additionally, showers ahead of the front the previous evening caused some minor roadway
flooding. Mud and rocks in slow lane on WB HWY 152.
2/11/2019 Landslide None Santa Clara 160 meters east of intersection of Hicks Road and Pheasant Road. Mud, rock, and debris covered Hicks Road resulting in multiday closure
2/13/2019 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Robertsville
An atmospheric river with an associated cold front moved through the region from February 12th to the 15th bringing widespread flooding and debris flows. Multiple mainstem rivers flooded prompting evacuations from local officials.

Strong wind gusts caused downed trees, power outages,
and structural damage. Additionally, a tree fell on a car causing one fatality and one serious injury on Highway 17 while another downed tree caused a serious multi-car
traffic accident that resulted in another fatality as well as major injuries. The areas peaks received upwards of 10
inches of rainfall and widespread wind gusts of 50 to 60 mph were observed. Mount Saint Helena recorded wind
gusts of 80 mph. Mudslide blocking both lanes of Hicks Rd in south San José.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 323
Dates of Event Event Type FEMA
Declaration Location Losses/Impacts
2/13/2019 Flood, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Saratoga
An atmospheric river with an associated cold front moved through the region from February 12th to the 15th bringing widespread flooding and debris flows. Multiple mainstem rivers flooded prompting evacuations from local officials.

Strong wind gusts caused downed trees, power outages,
and structural damage. Additionally, a tree fell on a car causing one fatality and one serious injury on Highway 17 while another downed tree caused a serious multi-car
traffic accident that resulted in another fatality as well as major injuries. The areas peaks received upwards of 10
inches of rainfall and widespread wind gusts of 50 to 60 mph were observed. Mount Saint Helena recorded wind
gusts of 80 mph.

Mud in NB lane of CA-9 1 mile south of Redwood Gulch.
2/14/2019 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Saratoga
An atmospheric river with an associated cold front moved through the region from February 12th to the 15th bringing widespread flooding and debris flows. Multiple mainstem rivers flooded prompting evacuations from local officials.

Strong wind gusts caused downed trees, power outages,
and structural damage. Additionally, a tree fell on a car causing one fatality and one serious injury on Highway 17 while another downed tree caused a serious multi-car
traffic accident that resulted in another fatality as well as major injuries. The areas peaks received upwards of 10
inches of rainfall and widespread wind gusts of 50 to 60 mph were observed. Mount Saint Helena recorded wind
gusts of 80 mph. Mud slide blocking lanes at SR 9 and
Booker Creek Rd.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 324
Dates of Event Event Type FEMA
Declaration Location Losses/Impacts
1/27/2021 Debris Flow, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
Coyote
A plume of moisture from the tropical Pacific brought an Atmospheric River to the Bay Area January 26–29. This
system generated heavy rain rates causing flooding and
debris flows over area burn scars as well as 15 to 20
inches of rain in the Santa Lucia Mountains. Mudflows near the River Fire burn scar in Monterey County caused
damage to homes, covered roadways, and trapped animals
at local ranches. Debris flows near the Dolan Fire burn scar caused an entire section of Highway 1 near Rat Creek to collapse into the Pacific Ocean. This was an unusually cold system for an Atmospheric River resulting in lower snow levels and allowing for accumulating snow as low as 1300 feet in elevation. Additionally, strong south to southeast winds gusted to 60-70 mph across area peaks with Mt
Diablo reaching 80 mph. Valley locations were gusting up to 40 mph. Numerous trees fell across the region including into homes and onto cars. Multiple power outages were
also reported. It is estimated that the storm caused millions of dollars in damage across Santa Cruz County.

Mud/dirt/rocks in roadway at Metcalf Rd and Monterey
Hwy.
3/10/2021 Flood, Heavy Rain None Santa Clara,
San José
A cold upper low moved through the region in early March bringing widespread showers and isolated thunderstorms
to the Greater Bay Area. This system caused roadway
flooding, debris flows, lightning, and small hail. Snow was also reported on some of the area’s peaks throughout the region as snow levels dropped down to 2,000 ft. A
mudslide occurred along the River Fire burn scar in
Monterey County sending mud and debris into nearby
homes. Roadway flooding northbound 280 & 87 due to
heavy rain.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 325
Dates of Event Event Type FEMA
Declaration Location Losses/Impacts
3/10/2021 Hail None Santa Clara,
San José
International
Airport
A cold upper low moved through the region in early March bringing widespread showers and isolated thunderstorms
to the Greater Bay Area. This system caused roadway
flooding, debris flows, lightning, and small hail. Snow was also reported on some of the area’s peaks throughout the region as snow levels dropped down to 2,000 ft. A
mudslide occurred along the River Fire burn scar in
Monterey County sending mud and debris into nearby
homes. Image on social media showing small hail near the San José International Airport.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 326
Figure 68: A Santa Clara County Debris Flow Triggered by Winter Storms Following the Loma Fire, 201728 F
283
According to the Santa Clara Valley Water District,283F 284 Santa Clara County has experienced as many as
13 feet of subsidence caused by excessive pumping of groundwater in the early 1900s. The SCVWD was created in the early 1930s to protect groundwater resources and minimize land subsidence. To reduce the demand on groundwater and minimize subsidence, the SCVWD uses a combination of imported surface water (from the State Water Project and San Francisco’s Hetch-Hetchy system), recycled water, and groundwater. Figure 68 shows the history of land surface elevation, groundwater elevation, and the estimated population of Santa Clara County from 1900 up to 2020. The SCVWD started importing water in the 1960s when the groundwater elevation reached its lowest elevation. 283 Swanson, B. (n.d.). A Santa Clara County debris flow triggered by winter storms following the Loma Fire, 2017 [Photograph]. California Geologic Survey.
284 SCVWD. (n.d.). Subsidence. https://www.valleywater.org/your-water/where-your-watercomes/groundwater/subsidence#:~:text=Land%20subsidence%20is%20a%20settling%20of%20the%20Earth%27s,J ose%20to%20southern%20San%20Francisco%20Bay%20were%20impacted.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 327
Figure 69: SCVWD Historic Groundwater Conditions284F
285

14.2.2 Location
In general, landslide hazard areas are where the land has characteristics that contribute to the risk of the downhill movement of material, such as the following:
 A history of landslide activity or movement during the last 10,000 years.  A steep slope.
 Stream or wave activity, which has caused erosion, undercut a bank, or cut into a bank to cause the surrounding land to be unstable.
 Recent wildfires, as debris flows often occur in areas that experienced wildfires the previous year.285F
286
 Recent construction, construction debris, or erosion due to construction.  The presence of an alluvial fan (geologic features built by runoff spreading out in a wide fan-like area), indicating vulnerability to the flow of debris or sediments. 285 Santa Clara Valley Water District. (2021). Imported Water: Vital to Santa Clara Valley [Photograph]. https://www.valleywater.org/your-water/where-your-water-comes/imported-water 286 USGS California Water Science Center. (2018, October 31). Post-Fire Flooding and Debris Flow. https://ca.water.usgs.gov/wildfires/wildfires-debris-flow.html Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 328
 The presence of impermeable soils, such as silt or clay, which are mixed with granular soils such as sand and gravel.

The best available predictor of where movement of slides and earth flows might occur is the location of past movements. Past landslides can be recognized by their distinctive topographic shapes, which can remain in place for thousands of years. Most landslides recognizable in this fashion range from a few acres to several square miles. Most show no evidence of recent movement and are not currently active. A small proportion of them may become active in any given year, with movements concentrated within all or part of the landslide masses or around their edges.

The recognition of ancient dormant mass movement sites is important in the identification of areas susceptible to flows and slides because they can be reactivated by earthquakes or by exceptionally wet weather. Also, because they consist of broken materials and frequently involve disruption of groundwater flow, these dormant sites are vulnerable to construction-triggered sliding.

The California Landslide Hazard Identification Act directs the State Geologist to identify and map hazardous landslide areas for use by municipalities in planning and decision-making on grading and building permits. Three factors that characterize landslide hazard areas include significant slope, weak rocks, and heavy rains. This program focuses on urban areas and growth areas that exhibit these characteristics. The OA includes both high- and low-risk landslide areas.

The Association of Bay Area Governments Resilience Program286F 287 provides more detailed mapping for the
Bay Area through use of USGS Summary of Distribution of Slides and Earth Flows (1997) and Map Showing Principal Debris-Flow Source Areas (1997). The County of Santa Clara overlaid these data on its jurisdictional boundaries to develop Geological Hazard Zones to suggest areas specific geologic hazards may be present. Additional geologic reports are required for construction in areas where a specific geologic hazard may be present.
287 Association of Bay Area Governments. (n.d.). Resilience. https://abag.ca.gov/our-work/resilience Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 329
Figure 70: Deep-Seated Landslide Susceptibility in Santa Clara County Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 330

14.2.3 Frequency
There are over 75,000 active and dormant landslides mapped in the Bay Area and other natural hazards such as earthquakes, heavy rain, floods, or wildfires continue to trigger landslides so there will likely be more landslide activity in the OA on an annual basis.287F 288 In the OA, landslides typically occur where
landslides and earth flows have occurred in the past. These previous locations may not show any evidence of recent movement and may not be currently active, but some portion of them may become active in any given year from natural hazard events. As shown in Table 109, damage from the El Niño rainstorm event in 1998 was mainly attributed to reactivation of landslide locations and because of sequential severe storms that saturated steep, vulnerable soils. Landslide events occurred during the severe storms of 1983, 1995, and 1998. Atmospheric rivers that occurred along the west coast in 2021 and 2022 also caused landslide events in California. As more frequent storms hit the west coast and wildfires become more frequent due to climate change, there will likely be increased landslide incidents.

Until better data is generated specifically for landslide hazards, this severe storm frequency is appropriate for the purpose of ranking risk associated with the landslide hazard. Subsidence is hard to predict. Given that it is a generally slow and gradual process which develops over time including in areas like the San Joaquin River Delta, it can be assumed the OA is at continuous risk from this hazard.

Further information on the impact of climate change on the probability of landslide/mass movement is included in Section 11.

Probability in OA: Occasional

14.2.4 Severity
Landslides destroy property and infrastructure and can take the lives of people. Slope failures in the United States result in an average of 25 to 50 lives lost per year and are estimated to cost society billions of dollars in damages. Landslides can pose a serious hazard to properties on or below hillsides. When landslides occur—in response to such changes as increased water content, earthquake shaking, addition of load, or removal of downslope support—they deform and tilt the ground surface. The result can be destruction of foundations, offset of roads, breaking of underground pipes, or overriding of downslope property and structures.

14.2.5 Warning Time
The speed of mass movements may range from inches per year to many feet per second, depending on slope, material, and water content. Some monitoring methods can provide an idea of the type of movement and the amount of time prior to failure. It is also possible to determine what areas are at risk during general time periods. Assessing geology, vegetation and predicted precipitation can help in predictions. Landslide early warning systems (LEWS) have gained more attention from researcher, government officials, and other decision makers in recent years.28F 289 The San Francisco Bay region was
once home to the to the first public debris-flow hazard advisory in the United States however, it had to be shut down due to lack of resources. There is currently no practical warning system for individual landslides. The current standard operating procedure is to monitor situations case-by-case and respond after the event has occurred. Warning signs for landslide activity include the following:
 Springs, seeps, or saturated ground in areas that have not typically been wet before 288 Santa Clara Valley Water District. (2017). Local Hazard Mitigation Plan. https://www.valleywater.org/floodingsafety/local-hazard-mitigation-plan 289 Guzzetti, F., & Gariano, S. L., & Peruccacci, S., & Brunetti, M. T., & Marchesini, I., & Rossi, M., & Melillo, M. (2020, January). Geographical Landslide Early Warning Systems. Earth-Science Reviews. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825219304635 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 331
 New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground, street pavements or sidewalks  Soil moving away from foundations
 Ancillary structures such as decks and patios tilting and/or moving relative to the main house  Tilting or cracking of concrete floors and foundations  Broken water lines and other underground utilities
 Leaning telephone poles, trees, retaining walls or fences  Offset fence lines
 Sunken or down-dropped roadbeds
 Rapid increase in creek water levels, possibly accompanied by increased turbidity (soil content)  Sudden decrease in creek water levels though rain is still falling or just recently stopped  Sticking doors and windows, and visible open spaces indicating jambs and frames out of plumb  A faint rumbling sound that increases in volume as the landslide nears  Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together

14.3 Cascading Impacts
Landslides can cause secondary effects such as blocking access to roads, which can isolate residents and businesses and delay transportation. This could result in economic losses for businesses. Other potential problems resulting from landslides are power and communication failures. Vegetation or poles on slopes can be knocked over, resulting in possible losses to power and communication lines.

Landslides also have the potential of destabilizing the foundation of structures, which may result in monetary loss for residents. The damage of destruction of culverts, levees, dams, or other flood mitigation infrastructure during a landslide can result in increased likelihood and damage from flooding. They also can damage rivers or streams, potentially harming water quality, fisheries, and spawning habitat.

14.4 Exposure

14.4.1 Population
Population could not be examined by landslide hazard area because the boundaries of census block groups do not coincide with the hazard area boundaries. However, population was estimated using the building count from the National Structure Inventory multiplied by the most recent average household size from the U.S. Census Bureau. Using this approach, the estimated population living in a moderate to high landslide risk area is 182,752. Table 110 shows the population residing in landslide hazard areas by city.

Table 110: Population Exposed to Landslide Hazard
Jurisdiction Population in hazard
area
% of Total City
Population
Campbell 629 1.45
Cupertino 4,530 7.47
Gilroy 2,578 4.33
Los Altos 1,082 3.40
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 332
Jurisdiction Population in hazard
area
% of Total City
Population
Los Altos Hills 2,986 35.33
Los Gatos 7,527 22.45
Milpitas 2,217 2.76
Monte Sereno 575 16.67
Morgan Hill 4,583 10.18
Mountain View 337 .41
Palo Alto 620 .90
San Jose 39,694 3.91
Santa Clara 614 .48
Saratoga 6,639 21.39
Sunnyvale 611 .39
Unincorporated 16,158 17.90
County Total 91,379 4.72

14.4.2 Property
There are 506,562 acres of land in the OA in a moderate to high landslide risk area. There is also a high number of existing structures and personal vehicles in the OA with an estimated value of $23 billion.

Table 111 shows the number and replacement value of structures exposed to the landslide risk and Table 112 shows the land by acreage exposed to moderate to high landslide hazard in the OA.

Table 111: Exposure and Value of Structures in Moderate to High Landslide Risk Areas Jurisdiction
Estimated Value within the Landslide Risk Area % of
Total
Replace
ment
Value Structure Contents Vehicle Total
Campbell $119,347,275 $93,490,164 $17,091,000 $229,928,440 1.45 Cupertino $642,077,740 $352,803,132 $46,269,000 $1,041,149,872 7.47 Gilroy $426,639,497 $241,668,405 $24,615,000 $692,922,903 4.33 Los Altos $183,084,928 $112,059,655 $11,295,000 $306,439,583 3.40 Los Altos Hills $551,842,500 $29,164,233 $30,159,000 $611,165,733 35.33 Los Gatos $1,329,885,950 $802,145,351 $97,668,000 $2,229,699,302 22.45 Milpitas $280,013,499 $146,512,485 $22,212,000 $448,737,984 2.76 Monte Sereno $102,860,017 $52,144,778 $6,264,000 $161,268,795 16.67 Morgan Hill $636,319,187 $339,329,715 $46,368,000 $1,022,016,903 10.18 Mountain View $50,017,254 $26,790,401 $6,714,000 $83,521,656 0.41 Palo Alto $278,075,584 $207,755,004 $33,669,000 $519,499,589 0.90 San José $5,567,073,749 $3,165,037,570 $450,567,000 $9,182,678,320 3.91 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 14: Landslide/Mass Movement 333
Jurisdiction
Estimated Value within the Landslide Risk Area % of
Total
Replace
ment
Value Structure Contents Vehicle Total
Santa Clara
(city) $84,759,092 $49,960,448 $14,184,000 $148,903,541 0.48 Saratoga $1,136,966,663 $661,435,350 $78,399,000 $1,876,801,014 21.39 Sunnyvale $104,153,879 $87,361,931 $8,604,000 $200,119,810 0.39 Unincorporated
County $2,611,823,403 $1,557,860,929 $220,905,000 $4,390,589,332 17.90 Total $14,104,940,226 $7,925,519,558 $1,114,983,000 $23,145,442,784 4.72 Table 112: Acreage in Moderate to High Landslide Hazard Areas Jurisdiction
Moderate to High Hazard Area
Area (acres) % of Total
Campbell 143.29 3.7%
Cupertino 2616.51 36.3%
Gilroy 3880.9 36.6%
Los Altos 247.32 5.9%
Los Altos Hills 2321.63 40.0%
Los Gatos 2954.63 39.6%
Milpitas 1572.02 18.1%
Monte Sereno 222 21.4%
Morgan Hill 1996.03 24.2%
Mountain View 105.14 1.3%
Palo Alto 4605.85 27.7%
San José 24693.71 21.3%
Santa Clara (city) 121.54 1.0%
Saratoga 2999.47 36.7%
Sunnyvale 144.7 1.0%
Unincorporated County 457938.24 75.9%
Total 506562.98 60.7%

14.4.3 Critical Facilities and Infrastructure
Table 113 summarizes critical facilities exposed to the landslide hazard in moderate, high, and very high risk areas. No loss estimation of these facilities was performed due to the lack of established damage functions for the landslide hazard. A significant amount of infrastructure, under the Infrastructure Lifeline category, can be exposed to mass movements:

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 Roads: Access to major roads is crucial after a disaster event. Landslides can block roads, causing neighborhood isolation and transportation delays. This can result in economic losses for businesses.
 Bridges: Landslides can damage road bridges. Mass movements can knock out bridge abutments or significantly weaken the soil supporting them, making them hazardous for use.  Power Lines: Power lines are generally elevated above steep slopes; but the towers supporting them can be subject to landslides. A landslide could trigger failure of the soil underneath a tower, causing it to collapse and ripping down the lines.

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Table 113: Critical Facilities and Infrastructure in Moderate to Very High Landslide Risk Areas Jurisdiction Essential Facilities Transportation Utilities Community Assets
Hazardous
Materials Total
Campbell 0 5 0 1 0 6
Cupertino 0 10 0 2 0 12
Gilroy 0 0 0 1 0 1
Los Altos 1 3 0 0 0 4
Los Altos Hills 2 10 0 0 0 12
Los Gatos 3 12 0 0 0 15
Milpitas 0 5 0 0 0 5
Monte Sereno 0 0 0 0 0 0
Morgan Hill 1 1 0 0 0 2
Mountain View 0 9 0 0 0 9
Palo Alto 0 5 1 3 0 9
San José 11 110 1 10 0 132
Santa Clara (city) 0 11 0 1 0 12
Saratoga 5 14 0 3 0 22
Sunnyvale 0 2 0 0 0 2
Unincorporated County 12 73 4 30 0 119
Total 35 269 6 49 0 359
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14.4.4 Environment
Environmental problems as a result of mass movements can be numerous. Landslides that fall into streams may significantly impact fish and wildlife habitat, as well as affecting water quality. Hillsides that provide wildlife habitat can be lost for prolong periods of time due to landslides. Some habitat types support more diverse species than others. In California, riparian areas contain the greatest diversity of species. For an area such as Santa Clara County, where steeps slopes, landslide potential, and other related geologic hazards are prevalent, erosion control is important to minimize the related adverse effects of a mass-movement event.289F
290

14.5 Vulnerability
Change in conditions: Increase in vulnerability
 As shown in section 14.2.1, an increasing number of landslide events have been documented since 2017.
 There has been a recent increase in the number of heavy rainfall events. Increased precipitation contributes to saturated soils which may stimulate landslide movement.  Landslide risk is highest in the foothills. Roads here are often narrow, or may have limited access such as dead-end spur roads. This makes ingress and egress difficult if roadways become blocked by slides.

14.5.1 Population
All of the estimated 91,379 persons exposed to high landslide risk areas are considered to be vulnerable.

Los Altos Hills, Los Gatos, and Saratoga have the highest percentage of population residing in areas at high risk to landslides. Increasing population and the fact that many homes are built on view property atop or below bluffs and on steep slopes subject to mass movement, increases the number of lives endangered by this hazard. Landslides losses don’t tend to be as heavily felt by socially vulnerable populations as other hazards. Everyone that lives in high-risk areas is at risk. There has been little research on human vulnerability to landslide as most research focuses on structural vulnerability however, some studies suggest that human behavior can play an important role in predicting potential losses.290F
291 While the size and timing of some landslides mean that injury or death is highly likely, advanced warning and immediate action (such as moving to a higher floor) can sometimes make all the difference. Education and outreach could help mitigate this risk to the public.

Some landslides onset too quickly for protective action to be taken, which can affect all demographic groups. However, residents who are older, those who are young, those who are visually or hearing impaired, or those who have mobility difficulties due to physical impairments may be particularly at risk to landslide. In cases where warning time is possible prior to a landslide, people with limited English proficiency may have difficulty receiving or understanding warning from a television, radio emergency warning system or cell phone alert to take appropriate action. 290 County of Santa Clara. (1994). Santa Clara County General Plan. https://stgenpln.blob.core.windows.net/document/GP_Book_A.pdf 291 Pollock, W. & Wartman, J. (2020, October 4). Human Vulnerability to Landslides. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7567151/
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14.5.2 Property
Although complete historical documentation of the landslide threat in the OA is lacking, the mountainous terrain surrounding the Santa Clara Valley indicates potential for landslides. Loss estimations for the landslide hazard are not based on modeling utilizing damage functions, because no such damage functions have been generated. Instead, loss estimates were developed representing 10 percent, 30 percent, and 50 percent of the replacement value of exposed structures. This allows emergency managers to select a range of economic impact based on an estimate of the percent of damage to the general building stock. Table 114 shows the general building stock loss estimates in the aggregate of all landslide risk areas.

Table 114: Loss Potential Based on All Building Stock in Aggregated Landslide Areas Jurisdiction Exposed Value
Estimated Loss Potential from Landslide
10% Damage 30% Damage 50% Damage
Campbell $229,928,440 $22,992,844 $68,978,532 $114,964,220 Cupertino $1,041,149,872 $104,114,987 $312,344,962 $520,574,936 Gilroy $692,922,903 $69,292,290 $207,876,871 $346,461,452 Los Altos $306,439,583 $30,643,958 $91,931,875 $153,219,792 Los Altos Hills $611,165,733 $61,116,573 $183,349,720 $305,582,867 Los Gatos $2,229,699,302 $222,969,930 $668,909,791 $1,114,849,651 Milpitas $448,737,984 $44,873,798 $134,621,395 $224,368,992 Monte Sereno $161,268,795 $16,126,880 $48,380,639 $80,634,398 Morgan Hill $1,022,016,903 $102,201,690 $306,605,071 $511,008,452 Mountain View $83,521,656 $8,352,166 $25,056,497 $41,760,828 Palo Alto $519,499,589 $51,949,959 $155,849,877 $259,749,795 San José $9,182,678,320 $918,267,832 $2,754,803,496 $4,591,339,160 Santa Clara
(city) $148,903,541 $14,890,354 $44,671,062 $74,451,771 Saratoga $1,876,801,014 $187,680,101 $563,040,304 $938,400,507 Sunnyvale $200,119,810 $20,011,981 $60,035,943 $100,059,905 Unincorporated
County $4,390,589,332 $439,058,933 $1,317,176,800 $2,195,294,666 Total $23,145,442,784 $2,314,544,278 $6,943,632,835 $11,572,721,392

14.5.3 Critical Facilities and Infrastructure
There are 398 critical facilities exposed to the landslide hazard to some degree. A more in-depth analysis of the mitigation measures taken by these facilities to prevent damage from mass movements should be done to determine if they could withstand impacts of a mass movement.

Several types of infrastructure are exposed to mass movements, including transportation, water and sewer and power infrastructure. Highly susceptible areas of the OA include mountain roads and transportation infrastructure. At this time all infrastructure and transportation corridors identified as exposed to the landslide hazard are considered vulnerable until more information becomes available.

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14.5.4 Environment
Landslides and other mass movements impact the environment through changing the earth’s topography; diverting or reducing the quality of rivers, streams, and groundwater; destroying forests and vegetation; and the destruction of natural habitats particularly around at-risk water bodies. Erosion from landslide can significantly degrade the potability water and its capacity to serve as a habitat for fish and other wildfire.

Landslides are difficult to predict. The environment most vulnerable to landslide hazard is the same as the environment exposed to the hazard.

14.6 Future Trends in Development
Santa Clara County has been one of the state’s fastest growing counties from 2010-2020, but more recently has experienced a decrease in population. It can be assumed the OA will continue to grow, though at a slower pace. Mass movements are becoming more of a concern as development moves outside of urban centers and into areas less developed in terms of infrastructure. The planning partners are equipped to handle future growth within landslide hazard areas. Landslide risk areas are addressed in the safety elements of local general plans. All planning partners have committed to linking their general plans to this hazard mitigation plan. This will create an opportunity for wise land use decisions as future growth impacts landslide hazard areas.

Additionally, the State of California has adopted the International Building Code (IBC) by reference in its California Building Standards Code. The IBC includes provisions for geotechnical analyses in steep slope areas that have soil types considered susceptible to landslide hazards. These provisions assure that new construction is built to standards that reduce the vulnerability to landslide risk. California real estate disclosure laws will also help ensure the public is aware of their risk.

14.7 Scenario
Major landslides could occur in the OA as a result of soil conditions that have been affected by severe storms, groundwater, or human development. The worst-case scenario for landslide hazards in the OA would generally correspond to a severe storm such which includes heavy rain and causes flooding in the OA. Landslides are most likely during late winter when the water table is high. After heavy rains from November to December, soils become saturated with water. As water seeps downward through upper soils that may consist of permeable sands and gravels and accumulates on impermeable silt, it will cause weakness and destabilization in the slope. As rains continue, the groundwater table rises, adding to the weakening of the slope. Gravity, poor drainage, a rising groundwater table and poor soil exacerbate hazardous conditions. An intense storm could cause saturated soil to move, resulting in landslides.

Continued heavy rains and flooding will complicate the problem further. As emergency response resources are applied to problems with flooding, it is possible they will be unavailable to assist with landslides occurring all over the OA. In this scenario, it is probable that private and public property, including infrastructure, could be affected. Members of the public could be injured or killed. Road obstructions caused by mass movements would create isolation problems for residents and businesses in sparsely developed areas. Mass movements could affect bridges that pass over landslide prone ravines and knock out rail service through the OA. Landslides carrying vegetation such as shrubs and trees may cause a break in utility lines, cutting off power and communication access to residents. The impacts to the immediate vicinity of a landslide would be severe while the impacts to the OA would depend on what public infrastructure, including transportation routes, are involved.

14.8 Issues
Important issues associated with landslides in the OA include the following:
 There are existing homes in landslide risk areas throughout the OA. The degree of vulnerability of these structures depends on the codes and standards the structures were constructed to.

Information to this level of detail is not currently available.

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 Future development could lead to more homes in landslide risk areas.  Mapping and assessment of landslide hazards are constantly evolving. As new data and science become available, assessments of landslide risk should be reevaluated.  The impact of climate change on landslides is uncertain. If climate change impacts atmospheric conditions, then exposure to landslide risks is likely to increase.  Landslides may cause negative environmental consequences, including water quality degradation.
 The risk associated with the landslide hazard overlaps the risk associated with other hazards such as earthquake, flood, and wildfire. This provides an opportunity to seek mitigation alternatives with multiple objectives that can reduce risk for multiple hazards.

Table 115: EMAP Consequence Analysis: Landslide/Mass Movement Subject Ranking Impacts/Landslide/Mass Movement
Public Minimal to
moderate
The public is at risk from injury, loss of life, and loss of property from a landslide, debris flow, or other mass
movement event. Because of the localized nature of these events, the damage would be severe in the immediate
vicinity and less impactful further away from the site.

Responders Minimal Responders may be called upon in the event of a landslide/mass movement event. They may be asked to
assess the situation, rescue survivors, divert traffic, and manage the overall incident.

During the course of their duties, they may be exposed to an increased risk of personal injury. Responders
responding to another hazard event could also be at risk from a landslide caused by an event like an earthquake’s aftershock or flood.

Continuity of
Operations (including
continued delivery of
services)
Minimal to
moderate
Continuity of operations and continued delivery of
services would depend on if a facility was in the
immediate vicinity of the landslide/mass movement event.

There also may be transportation delays if key roadways are impacted.

Property, Facilities, and
Infrastructure
Minimal to
severe
Landslides are a serious hazard to property, facilities, and infrastructure. They can result in damage and destruction to property through the destruction of foundations, offset of roads, destruction of bridges, breaking of underground pipes, or overriding of downslope property and structures.

Environment  Minimal to
moderate
Landslides and other mass movement events can alter
the earth’s topography, change water courses and water
quality, remove forests and vegetation, destroy natural habitats, and cause erosion. Landslide areas are prone to repeated slides.

Economic Conditions Minimal to
moderate
Impacts to the economy will depend on the location of the event. Disruptions to impacted facilities, critical
infrastructure, or transportation routes could have a longterm effect on the local economy.

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Subject Ranking Impacts/Landslide/Mass Movement
Public Confidence in
the Government
Minimal to
severe
The public’s confidence will depend on the government’s ability to manage and properly message the event.

Prompt and accurate information will influence public
trust.

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15 Tsunami
Definitions
 Tsunami: A series of traveling ocean waves of extremely long wavelength usually caused by displacement of the ocean floor and typically generated by seismic or volcanic activity or by underwater landslides.
 Seiche: A standing wave in an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water such as bays and lakes. Seiches are typically caused when strong winds and rapid changes in atmospheric pressure or an earthquake push water from one end of a body of water to the other.

15.1 General Background

15.1.1 Tsunami
A tsunami consists of a series of high-energy waves that radiate outward like pond ripples from an area where a generating event occurs. Earthquakes may produce displacements of the sea floor that can set the overlying column of water in motion, initiating a tsunami, depending on the magnitude of the earthquake and the type of faulting. Landslides, including from glaciers melting, and underwater volcanos are also sources of these events.

Tsunamis are typically classified as local or distant. Locally generated tsunamis have minimal warning times, leaving few options except to relocate to high ground. They may be accompanied by damage resulting from the triggering earthquake due to ground shaking, surface faulting, liquefaction, or landslides.

Distant tsunamis may travel for hours before striking a coastline, giving a community a chance to implement evacuation plans. In the open ocean, a tsunami may be only a few inches or feet high, but it can travel with speeds approaching 600 miles per hour. Tsunami waves arrive at shorelines over an extended period. Figure 70 shows likely travel times across the Pacific Ocean for a tsunami generated along the California coastline near the San Francisco Bay Area.

As a tsunami enters the shoaling waters near a coastline, its speed diminishes, its wavelength decreases, and its height increases greatly. The first wave usually is not the largest. Several larger and more destructive waves often follow the first one. As tsunamis reach the shoreline, they may take the form of a fast-rising tide, a cresting wave, or a bore (a large, turbulent wall-like wave). The bore phenomenon resembles a step-like change in the water level that advances rapidly (from 10 to 60 miles per hour).

The configuration of the coastline, the shape of the ocean floor, and the characteristics of advancing waves play important roles in the destructiveness of the waves. Offshore canyons can focus tsunami wave energy and islands can filter the energy. The orientation of the coastline determines whether the waves strike head-on or are refracted from other parts of the coastline. A wave may be small at one point on a coast and much larger at other points. Bays, sounds, inlets, rivers, streams, offshore canyons, islands, and flood control channels may cause various effects that alter the level of damage. It has been estimated, for example, that a tsunami wave entering a flood control channel could reach a mile or more inland, especially if it enters at high tide.

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The first visible indication of an approaching tsunami may be recession of water (draw down) caused by the trough preceding the advancing, large inbound wave crest. Rapid draw down can create strong currents in harbor inlets and channels that can severely damage coastal structures due to erosive scour around piers and pilings. As the water’s surface drops, piers can be damaged by boats or ships straining at or breaking their mooring lines. The vessels can overturn or sink due to strong currents, collisions with other objects, or impact with the harbor bottom.

Figure 71: Potential Tsunami Travel Times in the Pacific Ocean, In Hours291 F 292
Conversely, the first indication of a tsunami may be a rise in water level. The advancing tsunami may initially resemble a strong surge increasing the sea level like the rising tide, but the tsunami surge rises faster and does not stop at the shoreline. Even if the wave height appears to be small, 3 to 6 feet for example, the strength of the accompanying surge can be deadly. Waist-high surges can cause strong currents that float cars, small structures, and other debris. Boats and debris are often carried inland by the surge and left stranded when the water recedes.

At some locations, the advancing turbulent wave front will be the most destructive part of the wave. In other situations, the greatest damage will be caused by the outflow of water back to the sea between crests, sweeping all before it and undermining roads, buildings, bulkheads, and other structures. This outflow action can carry enormous amounts of highly damaging debris with it, resulting in further destruction. Ships and boats, unless moved away from shore, may be dashed against breakwaters, wharves, and other craft, or be washed ashore and left grounded after the withdrawal of the seawater. 292 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). Estimated Tsunami Travel Times to Coastal Locations. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/maps/ttt_coastal_locations/
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15.1.2 Seiche
A seiche is a standing wave in an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water, such as San Francisco Bay.

Seiches are typically caused when strong winds and rapid changes in atmospheric pressure or an earthquake push water from one end of a body of water to the other. The largest seiche that was ever measured in the San Francisco Bay, following the 1906 earthquake, was 4 inches high. The Bay Area has not been adversely affected by seiches.29F
293 However, the OA may see seiches on creeks if there was a local earthquake event. These kinds of seiches could have devastating environmental impacts.

15.2 Hazard Profile

15.2.1 Past Events
According to the 2023 California State Hazard Mitigation Plan,293F 294 over 80 tsunamis have been observed
or recorded along the coast of California in the past 150 years. The National Centers for Environmental Information294F
295 has recorded the California coastline being impacted by tsunami wave events on six dates since 2005: November 15, 2006, February 27, 2010, March 11, 2011, September 16, 2015, January 1, 2022, and January 15, 2022. Together these events caused approximately $55 million in property damage and cost one life. The Santa Clara County OA has never been impacted by a tsunami. The closest tsunami to affect the OA was the tsunami event on March 10, 2011, that occurred in Japan and traveled across the Pacific Ocean to create wave surges that damaged coastal areas in nearby Santa Cruz and Monterey Counties. These counties were included in FEMA-1968-DR-CA declaration. The largest impact of this tsunami experienced in the San Francisco Bay was at Berkeley Marina, where the tsunami caused about $50,000 in damages.

15.2.2 Location
Although the OA has not been significantly impacted by tsunami or seiche events before, the recent tsunamis due to disaster events around the world – including earthquakes and an underwater volcano eruption - has underscored how vulnerable the California coastline is to this type of hazard. Following these events, there have been a number of new studies and reports expanding on the State of California’s understanding of its exposure to tsunami risk. Cal OES, in conjunction with the University of Southern California and FEMA, developed Tsunami Hazard Areas Maps to assist cities and counties in identifying their tsunami hazard for tsunami response planning utilizing the best available scientific information. The risk areas are not defined in terms of human-created geographic features, however, according to the 2022 California Geological Survey Tsunami Hazard Area Map295 F 296 – County of Santa
Clara, approximately the area of the OA around the San Francisco Bay including parts of Sunnyvale, San José, Palo Alto, and Mountain View are in the Tsunami Hazard Area.

While only a relatively small portion of the OA may be directly impacted by a tsunami wave, additional tsunami impacts could be felt in the OA along area creeks that would rise with floodwaters from a San Francisco Bay tsunami caused by a local earthquake.
293 Alameda County Community Development Agency. (2022, March 17). Safety Element of the Alameda County General Plan. https://www.acgov.org/cda/planning/generalplans/documents/SafetyElementupdateapprovedbyBOS31722-FINAL.pdf 294 California Office of Emergency Services. (2023). Hazard Mitigation Planning. https://www.caloes.ca.gov/office-ofthe-director/operations/recovery-directorate/hazard-mitigation/state-hazard-mitigation-planning/ 295 National Centers for Environmental Information. (n.d.). Storm Events Database. https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/
296 California Department of Conservation. (2022, October 7). California Tsunami Maps and Data. https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/tsunami/maps
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Figure 71 shows potential tsunami inundation areas on the southern portion of the San Francisco Bay and Coyote Creek, which is the northern portion of the Santa Clara County OA.

Figure 72: Tsunami Hazard Area

15.2.3 Frequency
The frequency of tsunamis is related to the frequency of the events that cause them, so it is similar to the frequency of seismic, volcanic activities, or landslides around the Pacific Basin. Generally, four or five tsunamis occur every year in the Pacific Basin.

It is unclear what impact future conditions such as climate change may have on the frequency of tsunami events. It is possible that increased severe flood events, wildfires, and warming conditions could impact Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 15: Tsunami 345
the frequency of landslides, which are one known sources of tsunamis. However, they make up only a relatively small percentage of the root causes of tsunamis. Earthquakes are the most common cause of tsunamis. Current data indicates that there is not a statistically significant impact of climate change as we know it on earthquakes. This doesn’t necessarily mean that climate change does not have impact.

Current science may simply lack the capability to distinguish a direct correlation between these hazards.

For example, earthquakes can be triggered by changes to the amount of stress on a fault. According to NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology, changing conditions, such as surface water levels, due to hazards such as flooding and droughts may impact earthquakes, but we have no way of knowing by how much. It is unlikely that the OA would notice a significant change in the frequency of tsunami events due to climate change.

Further information on the impact of climate change on the probability of tsunamis is included in Section 11.

Probability in OA: Unlikely

15.2.4 Severity
Tsunamis are a threat to life and property to anyone living or visiting near the ocean. The full extent of a tsunami event can be severe, and is often measured by magnitude, similar to earthquakes. The higher the magnitude, the more severe and destructive the tsunami may be.

From 1950 to 2007, 478 tsunamis were recorded globally. Fifty-one of these events caused fatalities, to a total of over 308,000 coastal residents. The overwhelming majority of these events occurred in the Pacific basin. Recent tsunamis have struck Nicaragua, Indonesia, and Japan, killing several thousand people.

Property damage due to these waves was nearly $1 billion. The San Francisco Bay faces the greatest threat from distant tsunamis originating in areas such as Alaska, Washington, and Japan.

It is general consensus that the Santa Clara County OA would not likely see significant impacts from a tsunami originating in the Pacific Ocean, given the area’s primarily inland location. The extent of the damage would be limited to the immediate area. Boats, docks, and property near the bay may suffer some impacts if they were to be hit directly. Additionally, the OA would likely see minor tsunami impacts on creeks from a local earthquake event, with any floodwaters flowing up creeks impacting people visiting the creeks. A local earthquake tsunami can occur any time, and the resulting floodwater waves can carry damaging debris.

Some studies suggest that future conditions such as climate change are likely to increase the severity of tsunamis. Sea-level rise is one of the main reasons why. These additional impacts will most severely be experienced in low-elevation Pacific islands however, all coastal communities are at risk of the dangers associate with sea-level rise. Scientists studying the probability of an Alaska-Aleutian subduction zone earthquake and the subsequent impact to southern California supported the conclusion that rising sea levels can increase tsunami impacts. If the sea continues to rise as predicted, someday the impacts of a small tsunami will be similar to a large tsunami of today. The risk to the OA may change over time.

15.2.5 Warning Time
Typical signs of a tsunami hazard are earthquakes and/or sudden and unexpected rise or fall in coastal water. The large waves are often preceded by coastal flooding and followed by a quick recession of the water. Tsunamis are difficult to detect in the open ocean; with waves less than 3 feet high. The tsunami’s size and speed, as well as the coastal area’s form and depth, affect the impact of a tsunami; wave heights of 50 feet are not uncommon. In general, scientists believe it requires an earthquake of at least a magnitude 7 to produce a tsunami.

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The Pacific tsunami warning system evolved from a program initiated in 1946. It is a cooperative effort involving 26 countries along with numerous seismic stations, water level stations and information distribution centers. The National Weather Service296 F 297 operates two regional information distribution
centers. One is located in Ewa Beach, Hawaii, and the other is in Palmer, Alaska. The Ewa Beach center also serves as an administrative hub for the Pacific warning system.

The warning system only begins to function when a Pacific basin earthquake of magnitude 6.5 or greater triggers an earthquake alarm. When this occurs, the following sequence of actions occurs:
 Data is interpolated to determine epicenter and magnitude of the event.  If the event is magnitude 7.5 or greater and located at sea, a TSUNAMI WATCH is issued.  Participating tide stations in the earthquake area are requested to monitor their gages. If unusual tide levels are noted, the tsunami watch is upgraded to a TSUNAMI WARNING.  Tsunami travel times are calculated, and the warning is transmitted to the disseminating agencies and thus relayed to the public.
 The Ewa Beach center will cancel the watch or warning if reports from the stations indicate that no tsunami was generated or that the tsunami was inconsequential.

This system is not considered to be effective for communities located close to the tsunami because the first wave would arrive before the data were processed and analyzed. In this case, strong ground shaking would provide the first warning of a potential tsunami.

15.2.6 Extent
The extent of Tsunami can be measured through the new tsunami intensity scale which was proposed by Papadopoulos and Imamura in 2001. This intensity scale defines the ranges of anticipated intensities of Tsunami as:

Table 116: Tsunami Intensity Scale297F
298
Category Description
I. Not Felt a) Not felt even under the most favorable
circumstances.
b) No effect.
c) No damage.

II. Scarcely Felt a) Felt by a few people on board in small vessels.

Not observed in the coast.
b) No effect.
c) No damage.

III. Weak a) Felt by most people on board in small vessels.

Observed by a few people in the coast.
b) No effect.
c) No damage.
297 National Weather Service. (n.d.). Pacific Tsunami Warning Center. https://www.tsunami.gov/?page=history 298 UNESCO. (n.d.) The New Tsunami Intensity Scale. https://neamtic.ioc-unesco.org/images/Neamtic/PDF/intensityscale.pdf Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 15: Tsunami 347
Category Description
IV. Largely Observed a) Felt by all on board in small vessels and by few people on board in large vessels.
b) Few small vessels move slightly onshore.
c) No damage.

V. Strong a) Felt by all on board in large vessels and
observed by all in the coast. Few people are
frightened and run to higher ground.
b) Many small vessels move strongly onshore, few
of them crash each other or overturn. Traces of
sand layer are left behind in grounds of favorable
conditions. Limited flooding of cultivated land.
c) Limited flooding of outdoor facilities (e.g.
gardens) of near-shore structures.

VI. Slightly Damaging a) Many people are frightened and run to higher ground.
b) Most small vessels move violently onshore, or
crash strongly into each other, or overturn.
b) Damage and flooding in a few wooden
structures. Most masonry buildings withstand.

VII. Damaging a) Most people are frightened and try to run in higher ground.
b) Many small vessels damaged. Few large vessels
oscillate violently. Objects of variable size and
stability overturn and drift. Sand layer and
accumulations of pebbles are left behind. Few
aquaculture rafts washed away.
c) Many wooden structures damaged, few are
demolished or washed away. Damage of grade 1
and flooding in a few masonry buildings.

VIII. Heavily Damaging a) All people escape to higher ground, a few are washed away.
b) Most of the small vessels are damaged, many
are washed away. Few large vessels are moved
ashore or crashed each other. Big objects are
drifted away. Erosion and littering in the beach.

Extensive flooding. Slight damage in tsunami
control forest, stop drifts. Many aquaculture rafts
washed away, few partially damaged.
c) Most wooden structures are washed away or
demolished. Damage of grade 2 in a few masonry
buildings. Most RC buildings sustain damage, in a
few damage of grade 1 and flooding is observed.

IX. Destructive a) Many people are washed away.
b) Most small vessels are destroyed or washed
away. Many large vessels are moved violently
ashore, few are destroyed. Extensive erosion and
littering of the beach. Local ground subsidence.

Partial destruction in tsunami control forest, stops
drifts. Most aquaculture rafts washed away, many
partially damaged.
c) Damage of grade 3 in many masonry buildings,
few RC buildings suffer damage grade 2.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 15: Tsunami 348
Category Description
X. Very Destructive a) General panic. Most people are washed away. b) Most large vessels are moved violently ashore,
many are destroyed or collided with buildings.

Small boulders from the sea bottom are moved
inland. Cars overturned and drifted. Oil spill, fires
start. Extensive ground subsidence.
c) Damage of grade 4 in many masonry buildings,
few RC buildings suffer damage grade 3. Artificial
embankments collapse, port water breaks
damaged.

XI. Devastating Lifelines interrupted. Extensive fires. Water backwash drifts cars and other objects in the sea.

Big boulders from the sea bottom are moved
inland. Damage of grade 5 in many masonry
buildings. Few RC buildings suffer damage grade
4, many suffer damage grade 3.

XII. Completely Devastating Practically all masonry buildings demolished. Most RC buildings suffer at least damage grade 3.

15.3 Cascading Impact
One additional direct impact a tsunami wave may have on the Santa Clara County OA is through floating debris that can cause damage to any affected areas. The removal of this debris would also take OA time and resources.

Another cascading hazard includes tsunami-triggered fires. This refers to fires that burn after a tsunami event in spilled oil, debris, cargo, vehicles, vegetation as well as residential, commercial, or industrial buildings. These fires could result in injury, death, damage, and contamination of the environment by releasing potentially toxic gases and smoke into the air.

Inundation of wastewater treatments plants, three out of four which sit close to the mapped Tsunami Inundation Area, would also be of concern. This could release raw sewage, waste chemicals, and chemicals used in the treatment of wastewaters into the OA.

15.4 Exposure and Vulnerability
Changes in conditions: no change in vulnerability
 No changes in conditions leading to the occurrence of a tsunami have changed.  Development is not taking place in the potential tsunami hazard, so vulnerability is not increasing.

15.4.1 Population
The population of the Santa Clara County OA is located outside of a tsunami inundation area; therefore, no population exposure exists for the tsunami hazard. No residential properties were identified in the potential tsunami evacuation zone. Minimal risk may be present to employees or recreational visitors to the two parks in the area.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 15: Tsunami 349

15.4.2 Property
Based on the National Structure Inventory, 14 commercial buildings and 2 industrial buildings are potentially vulnerable to tsunami. These buildings have a total value of $6.7 million. Limited additional information is currently available about these facilities to determine additional impacts.

15.4.3 Critical Facilities and Infrastructure
Critical facilities and infrastructure in the Santa Clara County OA that are located within the tsunami inundation area include 5 ports, 3 railroad bridges, 4 highway bridges, 2 parks, and 1 open space.

Port location data was obtained from Hazus but little additional information about the function or these facilities and potential impacts from interruption or loss of operation. Two highway bridges are located on McCarthy Blvd near the northern border of Milpitas and San Jose. These are located near the outer edge of the potential inundation area and alternative routes are nearby. Another is located in Mountain View, also on the outer-most edge of the hazard area where alternate routes are available. A forth is in San Jose in the Alviso area, across the Guadalupe River which also has alternate routes. Two of the Southern Pacific railway bridges are also in the Alviso area, which is near the outer edge of the hazard zone. However, one bridge on this rail line is located closer to the shoreline and may experience more severe effects from a tsunami.

15.4.4 Environment
Waterways originating from southern portion of San Francisco Bay would be exposed to the effects of a tsunami or seiche; inundation of water and introduction of foreign debris could be hazardous to the environment. All wildlife inhabiting the area is exposed. Erosion and the destruction of naturally occurring marine habitats would be a concern. All of San Francisco Bay is in the Tsunami Hazard Area. The vulnerability of aquatic habit and associated ecosystems would be highest in low-lying areas close to the southern portion of San Francisco Bay coastline.

Tsunami waves and seiches can carry destructive debris and pollutants that can have devastating impacts on all facets of the environment. Millions of dollars spent on habitat restoration and conservation in the OA could be wiped out by one significant tsunami. There are currently limited tools available to measure these impacts. However, it is conceivable that the potential financial impact of a tsunami or seiche event on the environment could equal or exceed the impact on property. Community planners and emergency managers should take this into account when preparing for the tsunami hazard and considering future development.

15.5 Future Trends in Development
Land along the coast in the OA which could be impacted by a tsunami is primarily already developed or preserved as green space. Most of the land is classified as parks, including CPAD open space, Williamson Act parcels, and conservation easements according to the Plan Bay Area 2050. Additionally, the Tsunami Hazard Area in the OA is within flood hazard areas that are already regulated under floodplain management regulations. However, current FEMA flood maps do not consider tsunami flood risk. Additional data is needed to understand tsunami risk. FEMA has produced the website, “Thinking Beyond Flood Maps – Using FEMA’s Coastal Data to Reduce Risk and Build Resilience” as well as other non-regulatory products to support coastal communities’ development. FEMA also participates in the National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP), which is administered by NOAA. The NTHMP works to reduce the impacts of tsunamis through collaboration, communication, and financial and technical support. The Mitigation and Education component provides recommendations to reduce tsunami risk. Additionally, NOAA, through the National Weather Service, sponsors the NWS TsunamiReady Program which helps communities minimize the risk posed by tsunamis through better Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 15: Tsunami 350
risk assessment, planning, education, and early warning systems. Resources like these provide planning partners and developers with the tools needed to ensure any future development is at reduced risk from tsunami events.

15.6 Scenario
The worst-case scenario that may directly impact the OA is a local tsunami or seiche event originating in the San Francisco Bay triggered by a seismic event. This event could occur anytime and could be particularly severe given the limited warning time. There is potential for loss of life and injury. Property and business in the Tsunami Hazard Area could impacted. The series of floodwater waves that would occur would carry damaging debris and cause environmental impacts deep into the OA. These environmental impacts may be the longest impacts felt after the event, particularly if complex debris, crude oil, legacy contaminants, or other pollutants get into the nearby coastal marine environments or onshore. This could potentially have a long-term impact on the immediate local economy.

The largest kind tsunami event that may indirectly impact the OA would be a catastrophic earthquake and tsunami along one of the faults near California. For example, in anticipation of a full rupture along the 800-mile-long Cascadia Subduction Zone (CSZ) which lies off the northwest coast of the United States, the State of California is preparing for impacts of a magnitude 9.0 earthquake and the resulting tsunami waves, aftershocks, and flooding. Historical evidence suggests that an event of this magnitude will occur within the next 200 years. It is assumed this will be a “no-notice” event. If the CSZ experiences a full fault rupture, it will have a significant impact on surrounding areas, including other counties, states, and countries. According to the California Cascadia Subduction Zone Earthquake and Tsunami Response Plan, there may be over a thousand deaths, 1,500 injured, and 28,000 structures damaged or destroyed in northern coastal California alone. The cascading impacts of this event would also be substantial. It can be assumed if this were to occur, there would be an immediate need for support from first responders, volunteers, NGOS, and public health and medical services from outside the affected area. The 20 hospitals in Santa Clara County and mass care sheltering venues would need to be prepared to support survivors, including the injured. There would also be a noticeable impact to the daily life of OA residents, including potential disruption to critical infrastructure such as transportation, energy, telecommunications, utility systems, and public health and medical systems. The region, the State, and the Nation may face long-term economic repercussions.

The Science Application for Risk Reduction (SAFRR) Tsunami Scenario298F 299 includes additional information
on potential tsunami scenarios on the California pacific coast. This, and other resources, were consulted when developing the consequence analysis in Table 117: EMAP Consequence Analysis: Tsunami.

15.7 Issues
Important issues associated with tsunamis in the OA include the following:
 As tsunami warning technologies evolve, the tsunami warning capability within the OA will need to be enhanced to provide the highest degree of warning.
 With the possibility of climate change, the issue of sea level rise may become an important consideration as probable tsunami inundation areas are identified through future studies.

Special attention will need to be focused on the vulnerable communities in the tsunami zone and on hazard mitigation through public education and outreach. 299 U.S. Geological Survey. (2013). The SFARR Tsunami Scenario. https://www.usgs.gov/publications/safrr-scienceapplication-risk-reduction-tsunami-scenario Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 15: Tsunami 351
Table 117: EMAP Consequence Analysis: Tsunami
Subject Ranking Impacts/Tsunami
Public Minimal to
Moderate
Home and property owners within the Tsunami Hazard
Area are most at risk of impacts from a tsunami event.

Impacts to the public include potential for injury or loss of life, destruction and or/loss of lands and property, and contamination of water due to flooding. Flood water can pose health risks even after the initial wave. Post-tsunami cleanup would also have to be done appropriately to
reduce exposure to pollutants in water, debris, and moldy structures. Educating the public in advance on their
tsunami risk and ways to mitigate their risk will enhance the public’s ability to respond and recover.

Responders Minimal First responders, such as fire and police, would be relied upon to respond to this event. The impact on responders is expected to be minimal with proper training. The impact could be severe if there is a lack of training. It is important responders are aware and on the lookout for the
secondary effects of tsunamis.

Continuity of
Operations (including
continue delivery of
services)
Minimal Temporary relocation may be necessary in the unlikely event inundation affects government facilities. Delivery of services could be impacted if there is any disruption to the roads and/or utilities due to the inundation.

Property, Facilities, and
Infrastructure
Minimal to
moderate
Potential damages include damage or loss of properties, temporary impacts to transportation routes, debris build up, and potential stormwater system and wastewater
overload. Communication systems could also be limited.

The localized impact could be significant for facilities and infrastructure in the inundation area of the incident. The farther away from the incident area, the more likely the damage will lessen, from moderate to minimal.

Environment Minimal to
severe
The impact to the environment could be severe,
depending on the size and unique characteristics of a
tsunami. There may be significant and complicated debris removal required including a diverse array of pollutants spilling into the environment. Marine habitats may be
damaged by contaminants, which may have a short or
long-term impact on the environment and health of the
coastal ecosystem. The shoreline may erode. The
environmental impacts may not be limited to waterways.

Debris, toxins, airborne ash after a tsunami-related fire, and more could enter the surrounding land and air.

Economic Conditions Minimal to
severe
Impacts on the economy will greatly depend on the scope of the inundation and the amount of time it takes for the water to recede as well as any leftover debris or
contaminants. Secondary hazards experienced will also
impact the economy’s recovery. Industries such as fishing, tourism, and environmental recreation may experience
more significant impacts.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 15: Tsunami 352
Subject Ranking Impacts/Tsunami
Public Confidence in
the Government
Minimal to
severe
The public’s confidence will vary, depending on the
perception of whether the failure could have been
prevented, the warning time, and the time it takes for
response and recovery. Proactive preparation in advance of a tsunami event and effectively implementing response plans will support confidence in government.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 353
16 Other Hazards of Interest
Definitions
 Terrorism: The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence against people or property with the intention of intimidating or coercing societies or governments. Terrorism is either foreign or domestic, depending on the origin, base, and objectives of the terrorist or organization.  Weapons of Mass Destruction: Chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosive weapons associated with terrorism.
 Active Threat: An active threat is a situation involving an individual or individuals using or threatening to use deadly physical force on others in a confined and populated area.  Cyber Threat: Any circumstance or event with the potential to adversely impact organizational operations (including mission, functions, image, or reputation), organizational assets, or individuals through an information system via unauthorized access, destruction, disclosure, modification of information, and/or denial of service.
 Technological Hazards: Hazards from accidents associated with human activities such as the manufacture, transportation, storage, and use of hazardous materials.  Epidemic/Pandemic: An epidemic is a sudden increase in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally expected in that population in a specific area. A pandemic is an epidemic that occurs over a broad geographic region, usually nationally or globally.  Fog: visible cloud water droplets that are low-lying and influenced by nearby bodies of water, topography, and wind conditions.

16.1 General Background
In addition to the hazards of concern presented in the preceding sections, four other hazards of interest, which were addressed in the 2017 Plan, are also included in this MJHMP:

1. Intentional criminal, malicious acts, including acts of terrorism, cyber threats, and active threats.

2. Technological incidents that arise accidentally from human activities such as the manufacture, transportation, storage, and use of hazardous materials; transportation accidents; pipeline failure and release; and utility failure.

3. Epidemics and pandemics of human disease.

4. Fog
Although they may not be traditionally profiled in hazard mitigation plans like some of the other hazards in the plan, they are included for the following reasons:
 This plan takes a proactive approach to disaster preparedness to protect the public safety of all citizens.
 Preparation for and response to an event involving these hazards of interest will involve many of the same staff, critical decisions, and commitment of resources as a natural hazard.  The multi-hazard mitigation planning effort is an opportunity to inform the public about all hazards, including those beyond the natural hazards of concern.
 The likelihood of an event involving one of these hazards of interest in the Santa Clara County OA is greater than some of the identified natural hazards in this plan.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 354
The sections below provide short profiles of each of the four other hazards of interest. No formal risk assessment was performed and mitigation actions for these hazards are not mandatory under 44 CFR Section §201.6(c)(2)(i). The “Identified Needs” identified at the end of this section shall serve in the place of a formal action plan. All planning partners for the MJHMP should be aware of these hazards and take steps to reduce the risks they present whenever it is practical to do so.

16.1.1 EMAP Consequence Analysis
The planning team decided to include one comprehensive analysis for all of the other hazards of interest. The analysis results are provided in Table 118.

Table 118: EMAP Consequence Analysis: Other Hazards of Interest Subject Ranking Impacts
Public Severe
Impact of the immediate area could be severe, especially in the event of intentional hazards. Impact for less affected areas could be moderate to light.

Responders Severe
Impact to responders could be severe for unprotected
personnel and moderate to light for prepared personnel. In the event of some hazards, responders may be specifically targeted.

Continuity of Operations
(including continued
delivery of services)
Moderate
There is some expectation of execution of the COOP. This will vary depending on the severity of the event. Services may need to be conducted at a secondary and secure
location.

Property, Facilities, and
Infrastructure Severe
Critical facilities are often targeted, making impacts
potentially severe. Utilities, technology, transportation systems, and infrastructure are most likely to be damaged or impacted.

Environment Severe
Surrounding environment of targeted or impacted areas can be severe. The greatest impact will be to trees, bushes, foliage, crops, and wildlife.

Economic Conditions Minimal to
Severe
Impacts to the economy will greatly depend on the severity of the event, and any damages sustained such as utilities and roads. In a localized event damages may be minimal, but economic impacts can become severe when the event is more widespread.

Public Confidence in the
Government
Minimal to
Severe
Response and recovery will be in question if not timely and effective.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 355

16.2 Intentional Hazards

16.2.1 Terrorism and Weapons of Mass Destruction
Terrorist activities are those that involve an illegal use of force or violence against people and property in violation of criminal laws of the United States with the intent to intimidate, coerce, or ransom. FEMA states that acts of terrorism include the use of weapons of mass destruction, including biological, chemical, nuclear, and radiological weapons; arson, incendiary, explosive and armed attacks; industrial sabotage and intentional hazardous materials releases; agro-terrorism; and cyber-terrorism29F 300. The threat
of violence is also a component of terrorism. The following are potential methods used by terrorists that could affect the Santa Clara OA as a direct target or collaterally:
 Bombings; improvised explosive devices  Conventional firearms/mass shootings  Suicide attacks  Secondary attacks
 Chemical or biological weapons  Cyber-terrorism
 Radiological dispersal device  Agro-terrorism
 Vehicle/aircraft attacks  Kidnappings/assassinations  Conventional firearms/mass shootings  Nuclear weapons (fission or thermonuclear)
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) categorizes two types of terrorism in the United States30F 301:
 International Terrorism: Violent, criminal acts committed by individuals and/or groups who are inspired by, or associated with, designated foreign terrorist organizations or nations (statesponsored).  Domestic Terrorism: Violent, criminal acts committed by individuals and/or groups to further ideological goals stemming from domestic influences, such as those of a political, religious, social, or environmental nature.

The effects of terrorism can include injuries, loss of life, property damage, or disruption of services such as electricity, water supplies, transportation, or communications. Effects may be immediate or delayed.

Terrorists often choose targets that offer limited danger to themselves and areas with relatively easy public access. Foreign terrorists look for visible targets where they can avoid detection before and after an attack, such as international airports, large cities, major special events, and high-profile landmarks.

Cal OES and local governments have identified high profile targets for potential terrorists within their jurisdictions. Large business centers, high visibility tourist attractions, transportation providers, and critical infrastructure in Santa Clara County may become a target for terrorism and can present security challenges of an ongoing nature. Multiple incidents can happen simultaneously, and typically require a multi-agency, multijurisdictional response.
300 FEMA. (n.d.) Terrorism.
https://www.fema.gov/pdf/areyouready/terrorism.pdf#:~:text=Terrorism%20is%20the%20use%20of%20force%20or% 20violence,States%20for%20purposes%20of%20intimidation%2C%20coercion%2C%20or%20ransom. 301 Federal Bureau of Investigation. (n.d.) Terrorism. https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/terrorism Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 356
Those involved with terrorism response, including law enforcement, fire and rescue, public health and public information staff, are trained to deal with the public’s emotional reaction swiftly as response to the event occurs. The area of the event must be clearly identified in all emergency alert messages to prevent those not affected by the incident from overwhelming local emergency rooms and response resources therefore reducing service to those actually affected. The public will be informed clearly and frequently about what government agencies are doing to mitigate the impacts of the event. The public will also be given clear directions on how to protect the health of individuals and families.

Table 119 provides a hazard profile summary for terrorism-related hazards. Most terrorist events in the United States have been involved detonated and undetonated explosive devices, tear gas, pipe bombs, and firebombs.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 357
Table 119: Event Profiles for Terrorism301 F
302
Hazard Application Modea Hazard Durationb
Static/Dynamic
Characteristicsc
Mitigating and
Exacerbating Conditionsd
Conventional
Bomb
Detonation of
explosive device on
or near target;
delivery via person,
vehicle, or projectile.

Instantaneous; additional
secondary devices, or
diversionary activities
may be used,
lengthening the duration
of the hazard until the
attack site is determined
to be clear.

Extent of damage is
determined by type and
quantity of explosive.

Effects generally static other
than cascading
consequences, incremental
structural failure, etc.

Overpressure at a given standoff is
inversely proportional to the cube of the
distance from the blast; thus, each
additional increment of standoff provides
progressively more protection. Terrain,
forestation, structures, etc. can provide
shielding by absorbing and/or deflecting
energy and debris. Exacerbating
conditions include ease of access to
target; lack of barriers and shielding;
poor construction; and ease of
concealment of device.

Chemical
Agent
Liquid/aerosol
contaminants
dispersed using
sprayers or other
aerosol generators;
liquids vaporizing
from puddles/
containers; or
munitions.

Hours to weeks,
depending on the agent
and the conditions in
which it exists.

Contamination can be
carried out of the initial
target area by persons,
vehicles, water, and wind.

Chemicals may be corrosive
or otherwise damaging over
time if not remediated.

Air temperature can affect evaporation of
aerosols. Ground temperature affects
evaporation of liquids. Humidity can
enlarge aerosol particles, reducing
inhalation hazard. Precipitation can
dilute and disperse agents but can
spread contamination. Wind can
disperse vapors but also cause target
area to be dynamic. The micrometeorological effects of buildings and terrain can alter travel and duration of
agents. Shielding in the form of
sheltering in place can protect people
and property from harmful effects.
302 Federal Emergency Management Agency (2003). Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation Planning. https://gema.georgia.gov/document/publication/howto7pdf/download Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 358
Hazard Application Modea Hazard Durationb
Static/Dynamic
Characteristicsc
Mitigating and
Exacerbating Conditionsd
Arson/
Incendiary
Attack
Initiation of fire or
explosion on or near
target via direct
contact or remotely
via projectile.

Generally minutes to
hours.

Extent of damage is
determined by type and
quantity of device,
accelerant, and materials
present at or near target.

Effects generally static other
than cascading
consequences, incremental
structural failure, etc.

Mitigation factors include built-in fire
detection and protection systems and
fire- resistive construction techniques.

Inadequate security can allow easy
access to target, easy concealment of
an incendiary device, and undetected
initiation of a fire. Non-compliance with
fire and building codes, as well as failure
to maintain existing fire protection
systems, can substantially increase the
effectiveness of a fire weapon.

Armed Attack Tactical assault or
sniping from remote
location, or random
attack based on fear,
emotion, or
mental instability.

Generally minutes to
days.

Varies based on the
perpetrators’ intent and
capabilities.

Inadequate security can allow easy
access to target, easy concealment of
weapons, and undetected initiation of an
attack.

Biological
Agent
Liquid or solid
contaminants
dispersed using
sprayers/ aerosol
generators or by
point or line sources
such as munitions,
covert deposits, and
moving sprayers.

Hours to years,
depending on the agent
and the conditions in
which it exists.

Depending on the agent used
and the effectiveness with
which it is deployed,
contamination can be spread
via wind and water.

Infection can spread via
humans or animals.

Altitude of release above ground can
affect dispersion; sunlight is destructive
to many bacteria and viruses; light to
moderate wind will disperse agents but
higher winds can break up aerosol
clouds; the micro-meteorological effects
of buildings and terrain can influence
aerosolization and travel of agents.

Agro-terrorism Direct, generally
covert contamination
of food supplies or
introduction of pests
and/or disease
agents to
crops and livestock.

Days to months. Varies by type of incident.

Food contamination events
may be limited to specific
distribution sites, whereas
pests and diseases may
spread widely. Generally, no
effects on built environment.

Inadequate security can facilitate
adulteration of food and introduction of
pests and disease agents to crops and
livestock.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 359
Hazard Application Modea Hazard Durationb
Static/Dynamic
Characteristicsc
Mitigating and
Exacerbating Conditionsd
Radiological
Agent
Radioactive
contaminants
dispersed using
sprayers/ aerosol
generators, or by
point or line sources
such as munitions.

Seconds to years,
depending on material
used.

Initial effects will be localized
to site of attack; depending
on meteorological conditions,
subsequent behavior of
radioactive contaminants
may be dynamic.

Duration of exposure, distance from
source of radiation, and the amount of
shielding between source and target
determine exposure to radiation.

Nuclear Bomb Detonation of
nuclear device
underground, at the
surface, in the air, or
at high altitude.

Light/heat flash and
blast/shock wave last for
seconds; nuclear
radiation and fallout
hazards can persist for
years.

Electromagnetic pulse
from a high- altitude
detonation lasts for
seconds and affects only
unprotected electronic
systems.

Initial light, heat, and blast
effects of a subsurface,
ground or air burst are static
and determined by the
device’s characteristics and
employment; fallout of
radioactive contaminants
may be dynamic, depending
on meteorological conditions.

Harmful effects of radiation can be
reduced by minimizing the time of
exposure. Light, heat, and blast energy
decrease logarithmically as a function of
distance from seat of blast. Terrain,
forestation, structures, etc. can provide
shielding by absorbing and/or deflecting
radiation and radioactive contaminants.

Intentional
Hazardous
Material
Release (fixed
facility or
transportation)
Solid, liquid, and/or
gaseous
contaminants
released from fixed
or mobile containers
Hours to days. Chemicals may be corrosive
or otherwise damaging over
time. Explosion and/or fire
may be subsequent.

Contamination may be
carried out of the incident
area by persons, vehicles,
water, and wind.

Weather conditions directly affect how
the hazard develops. The micrometeorological effects of buildings and terrain can alter travel and duration of
agents. Shielding in the form of
sheltering in place can protect people
and property from harmful effects. Noncompliance with fire and building codes, as well as failure to maintain existing fire
protection and containment features, can
substantially increase the damage from
a hazardous
materials release.
a. Application Mode: Application mode describes the human acts or unintended events necessary to cause the hazard to occur. b. Duration: Duration is the length of time the hazard is present. For example, a chemical warfare agent such as mustard gas, if un- remediated, can persist for hours or weeks under the right conditions.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 360
c. Dynamic or Static Characteristics: These characteristics of a hazard describe its tendency, or that of its effects, to either expand, contract, or remain confined in time, magnitude, and space. For example, the physical destruction caused by an earthquake is generally confined to the place in which it occurs, and it does not usually get worse unless aftershocks or other cascading failures occur; in contrast, a cloud of chlorine gas leaking from a storage tank can change location by drifting with the wind and can diminish in danger by dissipating over time. d. Mitigation and Exacerbating Conditions: Mitigating conditions are characteristics of the target and its physical environment that can reduce the effects of a hazard. For example, earthen berms can provide protection from bombs; exposure to sunlight can render some biological agents ineffective; and effective perimeter lighting and surveillance can minimize the likelihood of someone approaching a target unseen. In contrast, exacerbating conditions are characteristics that can enhance or magnify the effects of a hazard. For example, depressions or low areas in terrain can trap heavy vapors, and a proliferation of street furniture (trash receptacles, newspaper vending machines, mailboxes, etc.) can provide hiding places for explosive devices.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 361

16.2.2 Active Threat
Active Shooter
Active shooter attacks are typically motivated by the desire to maximize human casualties. They are differentiated from other attack types by the indiscriminate nature of the victims, who often are targets of opportunity. Active shooter attacks range from “lone wolf” shooters who act alone and without any organizational affiliation to organized groups acting in concert to achieve a specific objective. Active shooter tactics sometimes employ a blend of lone shooters and multi-person teams as part of a larger assault.

Active shooters may use small arms, light weapons, or a combination of the two depending on the type of attack. Small arms are revolvers, automatic pistols, rifles, shotguns, assault rifles, light machine guns, etc.

Light weapons are medium caliber and explosive ordinance, grenade launchers, rocket propelled grenades, etc. Attackers can increase their likelihood of success by using a wider array of weapons, including improvised explosive devices.

Biological Attack
Biological hazards include disease-causing microorganisms and pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses, which multiply within a host and cause an infection. Some bacteria and viruses can spread from one individual to another. Infections typically occur as a result of airborne exposure, skin contact, or ingestion. In general, exposure to bacteria and viruses can occur through inhalation (as is the case with airborne B. anthracis spores, which cause anthrax), ingestion of contaminated food or water (the case with E. coli, which causes gastrointestinal infection), contact with infected individuals, or contact with contaminated surfaces (which may be harboring, for example, viruses that cause influenza). Domestic and transnational threat groups have considered targeting heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems of large commercial buildings.

Anthrax has been used as a weapon for nearly 100 years and is one of the most likely agents to be used in a biological threat. Its spores are easily found in nature, can be produced in a lab, and can last for a long time. It can be released quietly and without anyone knowing. Microscopic spores can be put into powders, sprays, food, and water. Due to their size, victims may not be able to see, smell or taste them.302 F
303 Terrorists may release anthrax spores in public places. In 2001, letters containing powdered anthrax spores were sent through the U.S. mail, causing skin and lung anthrax in 22 people. Five people died, all due to lung anthrax.30F
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If a biological attack were to occur in the Santa Clara County OA, a large number of personnel could be impacted. Buildings in the impacted area and transportation infrastructure might be closed for investigation and cleanup. These areas would not be accessible until cleanup is completed, which would impact the businesses. Hospitals could become overwhelmed with people coming in fearing contamination. Residents and businesses may need to shelter in place in the area of the attack. 303 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.) The Threat of an Anthrax Attack. https://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/bioterrorism/threat.html
304 Chan, C. & Pan, E. (n.d.). Anthrax in the air? San Francisco Department of Public Health. https://www.sfcdcp.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/SFDPH.Anthrax_in_the_Air._SF_Med._Society_article.pdf Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 362
Chemical Attack
Chemical weapons are poisonous vapors, aerosols, liquids, and solids that have toxic effects on humans, animals, and plants. A chemical attack is the spreading of toxic chemicals with the intent to do harm. A wide variety of chemicals could be made, stolen, or otherwise acquired for use in an attack. Harmful chemicals that could be used in an attack include:304 F 305
 Chemical weapons (warfare agents) developed for military use;  Toxic industrial and commercial chemicals that are produced, transported, and stored in the making of petroleum, textiles, plastics, fertilizers, paper, foods, pesticides, household cleaners, and other products; and
 Chemical toxins of biological origin such as ricin.

Exposure pathways include inhalation, skin contact, ingestion, or injection. Depending on the severity of exposure, impacts may include temporary illness or injury, permanent medical conditions, or death. An attack using chemicals can come without warning. Signs of a chemical release include difficulty breathing; choking or eye irritation; losing coordination; nausea; or a burning sensation in the nose, throat, and lungs.305F
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A chemical release in the Santa Clara County OA could lead to closure of streets and major transportation routes (including bridges) for extended periods of time, causing transportation delays and traffic. Many homes and businesses would also be impacted as they would need to be evacuated for an extended period of time. There could also be impact on the environment and/or natural resources that would require cleanup. Hazardous material response teams and fire-rescue would be needed to respond to the incident and coordinate cleanup efforts.

Radiological Attacks
The radiological accident hazard has been identified in the State hazard mitigation plan with a low probability. Terrorist acts involving radiological or nuclear materials (e.g., radiological dispersion device or an improvised nuclear device) is presented as an example of potential radiologic releases but not discussed further.

Explosive Devices
Improvised explosive device (IED) attacks are a favored method of terrorist groups around the world. The evolution in explosive materials and firing devices and their ease of concealment and delivery have increased the effectiveness of this hazard. IED attacks are typically motivated by the desire to maximize human casualties. The intention may also be to create fear in the community. Explosive incidents account for 70 percent of all terrorist attacks worldwide. These types of attacks range from small-scale letter bombs to large-scale attacks on specific buildings.

IEDs generally consist of TNT equivalent explosives (e.g., black or smokeless powder) in a container (e.g., galvanized pipe, paint can, etc.). These propellants are easily purchased on the commercial market.

IEDs may also contain added shrapnel to induce greater casualties or shaped charges that direct the force of the explosive toward the target. Devices may be hidden in everyday objects such as briefcases, flowerpots, or garbage cans, or on the person of the attacker in the case of suicide bombers. The most commonly used container is galvanized pipe, followed by PVC pipe. 305 Department of Homeland Security. (n.d.). Chemical Attack Fact Sheet: Warfare Agents, Industrial Chemicals, and Toxins. https://www.dhs.gov/publication/chemical-attack-fact-sheet 306 Federal Emergency Management Agency. (n.d.). Chemicals and Hazardous Materials Incidents. https://www.ready.gov/hazmat#during
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When shrapnel is added to the device, the type of shrapnel varies—bullets and other small pieces of hardware are common, as are glass and gravel.

An attack using IEDs or other explosive device in the Santa Clara County OA has potential large-scale consequences that may require multi-agency and multijurisdictional coordination. Depending on the location of the attack, businesses and other venues may be closed for investigation and due to damage. If the attack occurred in or near residences, evacuations and/or sheltering may occur.

Fire as a Weapon
The use of fire for criminal, gang, and terrorist activities, as well as targeting first responders, is one of numerous increasingly complex approaches to terrorism. This tactic can include arson, improved incendiary devices (IIDs), deliberate forest fires, and more. Human-causes are the leading cause of wildfires in California. Between the last plan update and 2022, the annual acres burned due to arson caused wildfires ranged from 483 acres (2022) to 44,609 acres (2020).306F 307 Fire, and incendiary devices
such as Molotov cocktails, have been used more frequently recently both during civil disturbances and in an attempt to break up otherwise peaceful protests. IID incidents have also increased. Between 2019 and 2020 alone, IID incidents targeting government facilities increased 210%, incidents targeting critical infrastructure facilities increased 141%, and incidents targeting commercial facilities increased 113 percent.307F
308

16.2.3 Hazard Profile
Past Events
The South Bay Area has not experienced a major regional terrorism event. According to the Cal OES Terrorism Response Plan, California has had a long history of defending the public against domestic and foreign terrorists. Domestic terrorist groups in California have been focused on political or social issues, while the limited internationally based incidents have targeted the state’s immigrant communities due to foreign disputes. Advanced technologies and communication have allowed these groups to become more sophisticated and better organized, with remote members linked electronically.

In California, most terrorist events have involved explosives, followed by incendiaries and firearms, as shown in Figure 72. During a recent three-month period, the Bomb Squad from the Santa Clara County Sheriff’s Office was called out three times:308F
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 September 5, 2022: Explosive Material Mitigation: The Bomb Squad was called to the scene of a man that was attempting to manufacture homemade explosives causing an explosion at his home. The explosion took off the suspect’s right hand and caused serious trauma to his lower face. Bomb Technicians deployed bomb disposal robots to extract the explosive material and precursor chemicals from the trailer to facilitate a controlled demolition and render the scene safe.  October 31, 2022: Suspected IED Mitigation: The Bomb Squad was called for a suspicious item suspected of being an IED that was abandoned on the side of the roadway. The item was made to look like an IED but was not viable.
307 Cal Fire. (December 2022). Arson Caused Wildfires – Acres Burned. https://34c031f8-c9fd-4018-8c5a4159cdff6b0d-cdn-endpoint.azureedge.net/-/media/calfire-website/images---misc/arson-acres-burned2022.jpg?rev=83a9dd360a794b6cb627bdf7371f2791&hash=7F588C79EC88FF533701B966B2E0138A 308 Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency. (n.d.). Fire As A Weapon. https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Fire%20as%20a%20Weapon%20Action%20Guide_Final%20508 %20%2804.12.21%29v.2_1.pdf
309 Santa Clara County Sheriff’s Office. (2023). Military Equipment Use Report, 6-Month Report. Military Equipment Use 6-Month Report_FINAL DRAFT (2.15.23).pdf (sccgov.org) Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 364
 November 15, 2022: Suspected IED Mitigation: The Bomb Squad was called to a Lockheed Martin Facility in Santa Clara for a reported IED in the shipping and receiving room. The item was made to look like an IED but was not viable.

Other agencies responded to two other incidents involving explosives.  March 1, 2023: Explosive Material Mitigation: The City of San José bomb squad was called to a South San José home as part of an investigation into someone possessing explosives and illegal drugs.
 February 7,2020: Suspected Terrorist Attack: Assailants in a vehicle opened fire on a Sikh police officer patrolling in Morgan Hill, California, United States. A Santa Clara County Sheriff’s Deputy was injured in the assault. No group claimed responsibility for the attack.” These are not the first incidents in the OA. One other example includes an attack in 2014 at a PG&E Corporation’s Metcalf transmission substation in San José when an unknown person entered an underground vault and cut telephone cables. Within half an hour, snipers opened fire on a nearby electrical substation. Shooting for 19 minutes, the persons were able to knock out 17 giant transformers that funnel power to Silicon Valley. Electric-grid officials were able to reroute power around the site and requested power plants in Silicon Valley to produce more electricity, but it took utility workers 27 days to conduct repairs and make the substation functional. The Wall Street Journal reported the incident at the time was called “the most significant incident of domestic terrorism involving the grid that has ever occurred.” There have been no arrests or persons charged for the incident.309F 310
Figure 73: Weapon Types Used in Terrorist Events in California310F 311
310 Smith, Rebecca. (February 2014). Assault on California Power Stations Raises Alarm on Potential for Terrorism; April Sniper Attack Knocked Out Substation, Raises Concern for Country’s Power Grid. Assault on California Power Station Raises Alarm on Potential for Terrorism - WSJ
311 Global Terrorism Database. (n.d.). Database Search Results. https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?charttype=bar&chart=target&search=california Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 365
Terrorist attacks can occur anywhere in the Santa Clara County OA. Past targets in California have included businesses, private citizens, government, educational institutions and many more. In California, as shown in Figure 74, businesses are the most frequent targets, accounting for 28 percent of all terrorist attacks in the state.

Figure 74: Targets of Terrorist Attacks in California31F 312
Severity
The severity of terrorist attacks ranges from inconsequential when the attack fails, to catastrophic. The effects of terrorism can include injuries, loss of life, property damage, or disruption of services such as electricity, water supplies, transportation, or communications. Effects may be immediate or delayed.

Terrorists often choose targets that offer limited danger to themselves and areas with relatively easy public access. Foreign terrorists look for visible targets where they can avoid detection before and after an attack, such as international airports, large cities, major special events, and high-profile landmarks. In recent months, there has been a rise in physical attacks against utility infrastructure in North Carolina and the Pacific Northwest.312F
313 Attackers targeted substations and used guns, fire, metal chains, and other weapons during their attack. As of this writing, the FBI is currently investigating. 312 Global Terrorism Database. (n.d.). Database Search Results. https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?charttype=bar&chart=target&search=california 313 Oregon Public Broadcasting. (December 2022). String of electrical grid attacks in Pacific Northwest is unsolved. https://www.opb.org/article/2022/12/08/string-of-electrical-grid-attacks-in-pacific-northwest-are-unsolved/ Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 366
Warning Time
For this hazard, warning time relates to warnings to local law enforcement from federal authorities and other law enforcement agencies as well as warnings to the public. In dealing with terrorism, the unpredictability of human beings must be considered. While education, heightened awareness, and early warning of unusual circumstances may deter terrorism, intentional acts that harm people and property are possible at any time. Public safety entities must react to the threat, locating, isolating, and neutralizing further damage and investigating potential scenes and suspects to bring criminals to justice.

People with a desire to perform such acts may seek out targets of opportunity that may not fall into established lists of critical areas or facilities. First responders in the Santa Clara County OA train to respond not only to organized terrorism incidents, but also to random acts by individuals who may choose to harm others and destroy property. The Intelligence Unit of the Santa Clara County Sheriff’s Office is comprised of a Sergeant and a Deputy that are assigned to the FBI’s Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) and the Northern California Regional Intelligence Center (NCRIC) respectively with the goal of helping safeguard the Santa Clara County community by conducting terrorism investigations, sharing criminal intelligence and threat assessment information with regional partners, and by processing and assessing Suspicious Activity Reports (SARs) submitted by local law enforcement and the public.

AlertSCC is the County of Santa Clara’s official emergency alert and warning system for the most up-todate information on emergencies and disasters happening in the area.

Critical Facilities, Infrastructure, and the Environment Critical facilities, infrastructure, and the environment are common targets of terrorist attacks. The environment may be impacted depending on the size and location of the terrorist attack. Human-caused fires pose a serious threat, as well as hazardous materials release.

Future Trends in Development
Terrorist attacks in urban areas would cause significantly more harm, injury, death, or property damage than it would rural areas. As the Santa Clara OA continues to develop, the target area for terror attacks expands as does the number of potential victims of an attack.

Cascading Impacts
A completed terror attack on critical facilities and infrastructure and the environment could involve multiple other hazards including power outage, utility failure, and hazardous materials release.

16.2.4 Cyber Threats
A cyber threat is an intentional and malicious crime that compromises that digital infrastructure of a government, person, or organization, often for financial or terror-related reasons. Such attacks vary in nature and are perpetrated using digital mediums or sometimes social engineering to target human operators. Generally, attacks last minutes to days, but large-scale events and their impacts can last much longer. As information technology continues to grow in capability and interconnectivity, cyber threats become increasingly frequent and destructive. In 2014, internet security teams at Symantec and Verizon indicated that nearly a million new pieces of malware—malicious code designed to steal or destroy information—were created every day.31F
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314 Symantec. (2015). Protection from Advanced Threats with Symantec Insight and SONAR. Broadcom. https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/protection-from-advanced-threats-with-insight-sonar-en.

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Cyber threats can vary in their severity, based on the systems affected by an attack, the warning time, and the ability to preempt an attack.314F
315 They also differ by motive, attack type and perpetrator profile.

Motives range from the pursuit of financial gain to political or social aims. Types of threats include using viruses to erase entire systems, breaking into systems and altering files, using someone’s personal computer to attack others, or stealing confidential information. Municipalities and private businesses within the Santa Clara County OA are susceptible to the most current and common cyber-attacks, such as socially engineered Trojans, unpatched software, phishing attacks, network-traveling worms, and advanced persistent threats. Many of these attacks are engineered to automatically seek technological vulnerabilities. Possible cyberterrorist targets include the banking industry, power plants, air traffic control centers, and water systems. The spectrum of cyber risks is limitless, with threats having a wide range of effects on the individual, community, organizational, and national threat.315F 316
“[The cyber threat] has exploded. It has become more diffuse, more sophisticated, more dangerous than ever before.”
Lisa O. Monaco, Deputy Attorney General (DAG)
Address at Annual Munich Cybersecurity Conference (Feb. 17, 2021)316F 317
This risk assessment includes cyberattacks and cyberterrorism. The terms often are used interchangeably, though they are not the same. While all cyberterrorism is a form of cyberattack, not all cyberattacks are cyberterrorism.

Cyberattack
Public and private computer systems are subject to a variety of cyberattacks, from blanket malware infection to target attacks on system capabilities. Cyber-attacks seek to breach IT security measures designed to protect an individual or organization. The initial attack if followed by more severe attacks for the purpose of causing harm, stealing data, or financial gain.

One of the most common cyber threats is malware. Malware refers to malicious software that a cybercriminal or hacker has created to disrupt or damage a legitimate user’s computer. It is often spread via an unsolicited email attachment or other legitimate-looking download. Types of malware include the following:
 Viruses: A self-replicating program that attaches itself to clean file and spreads throughout a computer system, infecting files with malicious code.
 Trojans: Programs disguised as legitimate software where the victim is tricked into uploading trojans onto their computer where they cause damage or obtain sensitive and/or valuable data.  Spyware: This malicious software is designed to enter your computer or other device, gather data about you, and forward it to a third-party without your consent. In December 2022, a U.S. lawmaker predicted spyware hacks of U.S. government employees could be in the hundreds, including diplomats.317F
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315 Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency. (n.d.). Cyber Threats and Advisories. https://www.cisa.gov/topics/cyber-threats-and-advisories 316 Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2022). Cybersecurity. https://www.ready.gov/cybersecurity#:~:text=1%20Accessing%20your%20personal%20computers%2C%20mobile% 20phones%2C%20gaming,services.%205%20Impacting%20transportation%20and%20the%20power%20grid. 317 U.S. Department of Justice. (2022 July). Comprehensive Cyber Review. https://www.justice.gov/media/1232936/dl?inline=
318 Center for Strategic & International Studies. (2023). Significant Cyber Incidents. https://www.csis.org/programs/strategic-technologies-program/significant-cyber-incidents Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 368
 Ransomware: Ransomware is a type of malware used by cyber actors to extort owners of computer systems. Since 2013, ransomware attacks are becoming increasingly common. On April 22, 2021, an apparent ransomware attack on the Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority (VTA), paralyzed many of the agency’s computer systems for days.318F 319 The hacker group claimed
that it stole 150 gigabytes of data from the transit authority and threatened to post it publicly if VTA does not “cooperate.”
 Malvertising: Malware downloaded to a system when the victim clicks on an affected ad.

Other types of cyber threats include the following:
 Phishing: Malicious email messages that ask users to click a link or download a program.

Phishing attacks may appear as legitimate emails from trusted third parties.  Man in the Middle Attack: Man-in-the-Middle is a type of cyber threat where a cybercriminal intercepts communication between two individuals in order to steal data.  Denial of Service Attacks: These attacks that focus on disrupting service by flooding computer networks and servers with traffic until the network can no longer function.  Advanced Persistent Threat (APT): An attack in which the attacker gains access to a network and remains undetected. APT attacks are designed to steal data instead of cause damage.

With millions of threats created each day, the importance of protection against cyberattacks becomes a necessary function of everyday operations for individuals, government facilities, and businesses. The increasing dependency on technology for vital information storage and the often automated method of infection means higher stakes for the success of measurable protection and education.

Cyberterrorism
Cyberterrorism is the use of computers and information, particularly over the internet, to recruit others to an organization’s cause, cause physical or financial harm, or cause a severe disruption of infrastructure service. Such disruptions can be driven by religious, political, or other motives. Like traditional terrorism tactics, cyberterrorism seeks to evoke very strong emotional reactions, but it does so through information technology rather than a physically violent or disruptive action. Cyberterrorism has three main types of objectives:319F
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1. Organizational: Cyberterrorism with an organizational objective includes specific functions outside of or in addition to a typical cyber-attack. Terrorist groups today use the internet daily for recruitment, training, fundraising, communication, or planning. Organizational cyberterrorism can use platforms such as social media as a tool to spread a message beyond country borders and instigate physical forms of terrorism. Additionally, organizational goals may use systematic attacks as a tool for training new members of a faction in cyber warfare.

2. Undermining: Cyberterrorism with undermining as an objective seeks to hinder the normal functioning of computer systems, services, or websites. Such methods include defacing, denying, and exposing information. While undermining tactics are typically used due to high dependence on online structures to support vital operational functions, they typically do not result in grave consequences unless undertaken as part of a larger attack. Undermining attacks on computers include the following:
319 The Mercury News. (2021, April 22). VTA Targeted in Apparent Ransomware Attack, Hackers Threaten to Release Trove of Data. https://www.mercurynews.com/2021/04/22/cyberattack-targets-vta-unclear-if-personalinformation-breached/ 320 INFOSEC. (2012, December 21). Cyberterrorism Defined (as distinct from “Cybercrime”). https://resources.infosecinstitute.com/topic/cyberterrorism-distinct-from-cybercrime/ Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 369
a. Directing conventional kinetic weapons against computer equipment, a computer facility, or transmission lines to create a physical attack that disrupts the reliability of equipment. b. Using electromagnetic energy, most commonly in the form of an electromagnetic pulse, to create an electronic attack against computer equipment or data transmissions. By overheating circuitry or jamming communications, an electronic attack disrupts the reliability of equipment and the integrity of data.
c. Using malicious code directed against computer processing code, instruction logic, or data.

The code can generate a stream of malicious network packets that disrupt data or logic by exploiting vulnerability in computer software, or a weakness in computer security practices.

This type of cyber-attack can disrupt the reliability of equipment, the integrity of data, and the confidentiality of communications.

3. Destructive: The destructive objective for cyberterrorism is what organizations fear most. Using computer technology and the internet, the terrorists seek to inflict destruction or damage on tangible property or assets, and even death or injury to individuals.

16.2.5 Hazard Profile
Past Events
Previous cyberattacks have occurred against the local government, critical infrastructure, and businesses in the OA. For example, in 2021, Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority experienced a ransomware cyberattack, with the intention of obtaining data and disrupting essential services.

The location of Silicon Valley within the OA also makes the area a significant target to major cyberattacks on businesses. In 2022, Nvidia, a major chip manufacturer based in Santa Clara, experienced a cyberattack in which valuable data was stolen. The attackers demanded a ransom to protect Nvidia’s data.

Location
Cyberattacks are local in nature. They can occur from anywhere.

Severity
A cyberattack, even a successful one, could have a minor impact on the victims or it could be catastrophic, depending on the situation.

Warning Time
The severity and timing of cyber threats are impossible to predict. There may be no warning. Some cyber incidents take weeks, months, or even years to be discovered and identified.320F 321
Critical Facilities, Infrastructure, and the Environment Critical facilities and infrastructure are common targets of cyberattacks. There is not expected to be significant environmental impacts.
321 Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2022). Cybersecurity. https://www.ready.gov/cybersecurity#:~:text=1%20Accessing%20your%20personal%20computers%2C%20mobile% 20phones%2C%20gaming,services.%205%20Impacting%20transportation%20and%20the%20power%20grid..

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Future Trends in Development
Future development is unlikely to be significantly influenced by cyber-attacks. However, cyberattacks that could impact larger populations could cause significantly more harm, injury, death, or property damage.

Expanding the local economy also presents additional targets for cyber-attacks.

Cascading Impacts
Cyberattacks can have many cascading impacts depending on the target, timeframe, and success of the attack. As stated in the 2018 State of California Hazard Mitigation Plan, “Computer system failures have the potential to result in cascading hazards such as energy outages, hazardous materials release, oil spills, transportation accidents, or dam failure.”321F
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16.3 Technological Incidents
Technological hazards are associated with human activities such as the manufacture, transportation, storage, and the use of hazardous materials. Incidents related to these hazards are assumed to be accidental with unintended consequences. Given the complex system of transportation networks, the large population, and the number of businesses in California, incidents occur on a regular basis throughout the state, as reported by the news media. Technological hazards can be categorized as follows:
 Hazardous materials incidents
 Transportation incidents
 Pipeline and tank hazards
 Utility failure
Hazardous Materials Incidents
A hazardous material is any substance that is flammable, combustible, corrosive, poisonous, toxic, explosive, or radioactive. Hazardous materials are present across the United States in facilities that produce, store, or use them. For example, water treatment plants use chlorine on-site to eliminate bacterial contaminants, and dry-cleaning businesses may use solvents that contain perchloroethylene.

Even the natural gas used in homes and businesses is a dangerous substance when a leak occurs.

Hazardous materials are transported along interstate highways and railways daily. The following are the most common types of hazardous material incidents:
 Fixed-Facility Hazardous Materials Incident: This is the uncontrolled release of materials from a fixed site capable of posing a risk to health, safety, and property. It is possible to identify and prepare for a fixed-site incident because laws require those facilities to notify state and local authorities about what is being used or produced at the site.  Hazardous Materials Transportation Incident: This is any event resulting in uncontrolled release during transport of materials that can pose a risk to health, safety, and property.

Transportation incidents are difficult to prepare for because there is little if any notice about what materials could be involved should an accident happen. These incidents can occur anywhere, although most occur on major federal or state highways or major rail lines. In addition to materials such as chlorine that are shipped throughout the country by rail, thousands of shipments of radiological materials (mostly medical materials and low-level radioactive waste) take place via ground transportation across the United States.
322 California Office of Emergency Services. (2018). 2018 State of California Hazard Mitigation Plan. https://www.caloes.ca.gov/office-of-the-director/operations/recovery-directorate/hazard-mitigation/state-hazardmitigation-planning/ Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 371
 Many incidents occur in sparsely populated areas and affect few people. However, hazardous materials have been involved in accidents in areas with much higher population densities, as shown in Figure 74.

Figure 75: Highly Populated Areas with Hazardous Material Incidents Within Santa Clara County32F
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 Pipeline Hazardous Materials Incident: Numerous natural gas pipelines, heating oil, and petroleum pipelines run through the Santa Clara County OA and surroundings. These are used to provide these products to utilities in the region and to transport the materials from production facilities to end users.

Federal regulations govern the transportation of hazardous materials in all modes of transportation: air, highway, rail, and water (Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations; Transportation, Code of Federal Regulations, Hazardous Materials Regulations). Title 49 CFR lists thousands of hazardous materials, including gasoline, insecticides, household cleaning products, and radioactive materials. California regulated substances that have the greatest probability of adversely impacting the community are listed in state code (Title 19, Division 2, Chapter 4.5, Sections 2735-2785; Hazardous Material Management Plan/Hazardous Material Inventory).

Even though information for 2022 is not complete, it appears that the total number of hazardous material incidents in Santa Clara County has decreased in the last few years. The number of injuries and fatalities has also decreased. The total incidents are outlined in Table 120. 323 National Pipeline Mapping System. (n.d.). NPMS Public Viewer. https://pvnpms.phmsa.dot.gov/PublicViewer/ Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 372
Table 120: Santa Clara County Hazardous Materials Spills 2019–202232F 324
Year Total
Incidents
Type
Injuries Fatalities Petroleum Chemical Sewage Railroad Railroad Derailment
Vapor Other
2019 196 22 13 27 24 4 9 4 11 12
2020 153 76 11 17 20 2 3 19 10 7
2021 157 70 13 20 20 2 7 18 9 11
2022 87 42 8 14 13 3 3 13 6 8
Santa Clara County has four Certified United Program Agencies that administer hazardous materials, hazardous waste, and underground storage tank programs within their jurisdictions:
 Hazardous Materials Compliance Division of the Santa Clara County Department of Environmental Health (for all areas of Santa Clara County other than the cities of Santa Clara, Gilroy, and Sunnyvale)  Santa Clara City Fire Department
 Gilroy Building, Life, and Environmental Safety to Community Development Department, Fire Prevention Division  Sunnyvale Department of Public Safety
Participating Agencies are local fire agencies that coordinate their activities under a memorandum of understanding with Santa Clara County Department of Environmental Health:
 Milpitas Fire Department
 Mountain View Fire Department
 Palo Alto Fire Department
 Santa Clara County Fire Department
324 California Office of Emergency Services. (n.d.). Spill Release Reporting. https://www.caloes.ca.gov/office-of-the-director/operations/response-operations/firerescue/hazardous-materials/spill-release-reporting/ Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 373
Transportation Incidents
Transportation incidents are those involving air, road or rail travelers resulting in death or serious injury.

The potential for transportation accidents that block movement through the OA is significant, as is the likelihood of hazardous material incidents resulting from a traffic or rail accident.

The Bay Area has a number of airports, including the San Francisco International Airport, Oakland International Airport, and San José International Airport, as well as San Martin Airport and Reid Hillview Airport, which are smaller municipal airports that enhance the potential for an air disaster. Major transportation routes in the OA include the following:
 Major highways include Interstates 880 (Nimitz Freeway) and 280; U.S. Highway 101 and Highway 237; and State Routes 87, 85, and 17.
▪ The 49 miles of light rail serving Santa Clara County is operated by the Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority (VTA), which oversees public transit services in the county. The Santa Clara VTA is continuing development for Phase II of its BART Silicon Valley Extension.

The project is planning four stations: 28th Street/Little Portugal Station, Downtown San José Station, Diridon Station, and Santa Clara Station. Construction of Phase II is estimated to carry 54,600 passengers each weekday to destinations throughout the Bay Area by 2040.324F 325
 Amtrak has a train station in San José at Santa Clara University.  The Santa Clara Depot, in the City of Santa Clara, is served by the Caltrain from San Francisco and the Altamont Corridor Express from Stockton.
 The Great America station in the City of Santa Clara hosts Amtrak’s Capitol Corridor trains and Altamont Corridor Express trains. The station is close to Levi’s Stadium and California’s Great America.
 There are 15 Caltrain stations in the OA. Caltrain is a commuter rail between San Francisco, San Mateo, and Santa Clara counties.
 The Santa Fe railroad has a right of way that parallels U.S. Highway 101 through the eastern edge of the county.
 Daily commuter traffic is very high in the OA due to Silicon Valley’s dense-employment population.

Pipeline Hazards
Approximately 300,000 miles of gas transmission pipelines and 170,000 miles of hazardous liquid pipelines move their products throughout the United States every day. Transmission pipelines connect urban areas, and only occasionally traverse highly populated areas. Numerous natural gas pipelines, heating oil, and petroleum pipelines run through the Santa Clara County OA and surroundings (see Figure 76).
325 Valley Transportation Authority. (n.d.). VTA’s BART Silicon Valley Phase II. https://www.vta.org/projects/bart-sv/phase-ii
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 374
Figure 76: Gas and Hazardous Liquids Pipelines in Santa Clara County325F 326
Pipeline Systems and Risks
Around 1945, the United States invested in the development of a nation-wide system of pipelines for the purpose of transporting natural gas and petroleum products. Most of these materials are moved by hazardous liquid and gas transport operators through a system of pipelines ranging in diameter from 20 to 42 inches. These pipes reach from the material origin wells to their destination in refineries that further process the material. Although pipelines are the safest and most reliable way to transport natural gas, crude oil, liquid petroleum products, and chemical products, there is still an inherent risk due to the nature of the hazardous materials.

Transmission pipelines are those that transport raw material for further refinement. These pipes are large and far reaching, operating under high pressure. Distribution pipelines are those that provide processed materials to end users. Distribution pipelines serve homes and businesses and thus are located where people live and work. These are smaller in diameter, some as small as a half an inch, and operate under lower pressure. Because of the extensive reach of the distribution system, incidents have the potential to be far reaching. For example, a pipeline leak may release material into a migration pathway, such as a sewer line, and reach an ignition source far from the location of the actual leak. Due to the far-reaching underground and unpredictable nature of the pipeline failure hazard, it is difficult to gauge the extent to which the hazard affects the Santa Clara County OA. Minor pipe leaks may remain undetected for years until identified during renovation, excavation, or maintenance. In some scenarios, such leaks may go undetected until the severity has increased, resulting in a noticeable smell or, in the worst-case scenario, an explosion.

Incident causes are grouped as follows:
 Corrosion: Incidents caused by galvanic, atmospheric, stray current, microbiological, or other corrosive action.
 Excavation Damage: Incidents resulting directly from excavation damage by operator’s personnel (oftentimes referred to as "first party" excavation damage), by the operator’s contractor (oftentimes referred to as "second party" excavation damage), or by people or contractors not 326 National Pipeline Mapping System. (n.d.). NPMS Public Viewer. https://pvnpms.phmsa.dot.gov/PublicViewer/ Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 375
associated with the operator (oftentimes referred to as "third party" excavation damage). This cause type also includes those incidents determined to have resulted from previous damage due to excavation activity.
 Incorrect Operation: Incidents caused by operating, maintenance, repair, or other errors by facility personnel, including but not limited to improper valve selection or operation, inadvertent over pressurization, or improper selection or installation of equipment.  Material/Weld/Equipment Failure: Incidents in main or service pipe, or in welds, joints, or connections joining main pipe or service pipe due to faulty manufacturing procedures; defects resulting from poor construction, installation, or fabrication practices; and in-service stresses such as vibration, fatigue, and environmental cracking. also included are incidents resulting from equipment failures such as: malfunction of control/relief equipment (valves, regulators, or other instrumentation); failures of the body of equipment, vessel plate, or other material; and all other equipment-related failures.
 Natural Force Damage: Incidents resulting from earth movement, earthquakes, landslides, subsidence, lightning, heavy rains/floods, washouts, flotation, mudslides, scouring, temperature, frost heave, frozen components, high winds, or similar natural causes.  Other Outside Force Damage: Incidents caused by non-excavation-related outside forces, such as fire or explosion; damage by vehicles or other equipment; nearby industry; failures due to mechanical damage; and intentional damage including vandalism and terrorism.

The greatest risk to the public regarding pipelines is the unintended release of a material being transported through the system. These materials are hazardous and have the capability to severely impact the surrounding environment, population, and property. These impacts may lead to severe injury or death. Combustible material transported through these pipelines may ignite or explode. Hazardous liquids may contaminate water systems. Families that rely on the transported material to heat their households may experience disruption of service. Pipeline failures also have the potential to negatively impact the economy, causing business interruptions or severely damaging vital infrastructure.

Depending on the pipeline material, age of the system, and transported product, pipelines may experience one or more general types of corrosion. Table 121 identifies corrosion types and a description of each.

Table 121: Corrosion Type
Corrosion
Type Description
External External corrosion occurs due to environmental conditions on the outside of the pipe.

Internal Corrosion on the internal wall of a natural gas pipeline can occur when the pipe wall is exposed to water and contaminants in the gas, such as O2, H2S, CO2, or chlorides.

Atmospheric Atmospheric corrosion occurs on a steel surface in a thin wet film created by the humidity in the air in combination with impurities.

Stress
Cracking
Stress corrosion cracking is the initiation of cracks and their propagation, possibly up to complete failure of a component, due to the combined action of tensile mechanical loading and a corrosive medium.

Pipeline material plays an important role in the possibility of experiencing a pipeline failure. The main causes for both hazardous liquid and gas transmission pipelines failure are corrosion, material or welding Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 376
failure, or damage due to excavation.326F
327 Plastic pipes installed for natural gas distribution systems from the 1960s through the early 1980s may be vulnerable to cracking, resulting in gas leakage and potential hazards to the public. Hundreds of thousands of miles of plastic pipe have been installed, with a significant amount installed prior to the mid-1980s. While distribution systems may widely vary in terms of construction material, nearly all transmission pipeline systems are constructed from high-strength steel treated with an anti-corrosive chemical.327F
328
Pipeline incidents may lead to severe injury or death. Combustible material transported through these pipelines may ignite or explode. In the case of a spill, the released product becomes a hazard by dispersing in the environment, contaminating water bodies, soil, and potentially affecting people and wildlife. Families that rely on the transported material to heat their households may experience disruption of service. Pipeline failures also have the potential to negatively impact the economy, causing business interruptions or severely damaging vital infrastructure.

Pipelines are monitored by system control and data acquisition systems that measure flow rate, temperature, and pressure. These systems transfer real-time data via satellite from the pipelines to a control center where valves, pumps, and motors are remotely operated. If tampering with a pipeline occurs, an alarm sounds. The ensuing valve reaction is instantaneous, with the alarm system isolating any rupture and setting off a chain reaction that shuts down pipeline pumps and alerts pipeline operators within seconds.

Pipeline Oversight
Pipelines are regulated in California by the Office of the State Fire Marshal Pipeline Safety Division.

CERCLA, the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, and California law require responsible parties to report hazardous material releases if certain criteria are met. CERCLA requires that all releases of hazardous substances exceeding reportable quantities be reported by the responsible party to the National Response Center. If an accidental chemical release exceeds the Right-to-Know Act applicable minimal reportable quantity, the facility must notify state emergency response commissions and local emergency planning committees for any area likely to be affected by the release and provide a detailed written follow-up as soon as practicable. Information about accidental chemical releases must be made available to the public.

The California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) serves as the state regulation authority regarding pipeline operations. The CPUC conducts operation and maintenance compliance inspections and accident investigations. It reviews utilities’ reports and records, conducts construction inspections, conducts special studies, and acts in response to complaints and inquiries from the public on issues regarding gas pipeline safety. The CPUC also endorses the system safety approach embodied in federal government regulations.

The U.S. Department of Transportation Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) is responsible for providing federal regulatory oversight of transmission pipelines. The agency’s Integrity Management Program is a transmission pipeline program started in 2000. This program focuses on regulations for transmission pipelines in high consequence areas, such as pipelines passing through high population centers or particularly sensitive ecological areas. 327 Pipeline Association for Public Awareness. (2023). Pipeline Safety Facts and Statistics. https://pipelineawareness.org/safety-information/pipeline-safety-factsstatistics/#:~:text=According%20to%20government%20and%20industry,failure%2C%20human%20error%20and%20 corrosion.
328 Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration. (2023, May 4). Pipeline Safety: Gas Pipeline Leak Detection and Repair. https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/sites/phmsa.dot.gov/files/2023- 05/Gas%20Pipeline%20Leak%20Detection%20and%20Repair%20NPRM%20-%20May%202023.pdf Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 377
The Integrity Management Program specifies how pipeline operators must identify, prioritize, assess, repair, and validate the integrity of their pipelines through comprehensive analysis.

PHMSA’s 2005 Distribution Integrity Management Program Phase One report found a lack of risk-based assessment in managing distribution pipeline systems. A guidance document was developed to assist operators in deciding what actions are needed to comply with standards of the distribution integrity management program.328F
329
In 2002, PHMSA released control guidelines for gas leakage. The guidelines included a regulatory classification for leakage severity, as shown in Table 122.

Table 122: Leak Classifications
Grade Description Examples Action Criteria
1 A leak that represents an
existing or probable
hazard to persons or
property and requires
immediate repair or
continuous action until the
conditions are no longer
hazardous.

Any leak which, in the
judgment of operating
personnel at the scene is
regarded as an immediate
hazard.

Escaping gas that has
ignited.

Any indication of gas which
has migrated into or under a
building or into a tunnel.

Any reading at the outside
wall of a building or where
gas would likely migrate to
an outside wall of a building.

Any leak that can be seen,
heard, or felt and which is in
any location that may
endanger the general public
or property.

Requires prompt action to protect
life and property. Action may
require one or more of the
following:
 Implementing a company
emergency plan
 Evacuating premises
 Blocking off an area
 Rerouting traffic
 Eliminating sources of ignition
 Venting the area
 Stopping the flow of gas by
closing valves or other means
 Notifying police and fire
departments
2 A leak that is recognized
as being non-hazardous
at the time of detection,
but requires scheduled
repair based on probable
future hazard.

Any leak which, under
frozen or other adverse soil
conditions, would likely
migrate to the outside wall of
a building (Note: This type of
Grade 2 leak must be
repaired ahead of seasonal
freeze/thaw conditions).

Any leak which, in the
judgment of operating
Leaks should be repaired or
cleared within one calendar year
but no later than 15 months from
the date they were reported. In
determining the repair priority,
criteria such as the following
should be considered:
329 Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration. (2005). Gas Distribution Integrity Management Program (DIMP) Integrity Management for Gas Distribution: Report of Phase 1 Investigations.https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/pipeline/gas-distribution-integrity-management/dimp-integrity-managementgas-distribution-report-of-phase-1-investigations-2005 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 378
Grade Description Examples Action Criteria
personnel at the scene, is of
sufficient magnitude to
justify scheduled repair.
 Amount and migration of gas
 Proximity of gas to buildings
and subsurface elements
 Extent of pavement
 Soil type and soil conditions
such as frost cap, moisture,
and natural venting
3 A leak that is nonhazardous at the time of
detection and can be
reasonably expected to
remain non-hazardous.

Because petroleum gas is
heavier than air and will
collect in low areas
instead of dissipating, few
leaks can safely be
classified as
Grade 3.

Any reading under a street
in areas without wall-to-wall
paving where it is unlikely
the gas could migrate to the
outside wall of a building.

These leaks should be reevaluated during the next
scheduled survey, or within 15
months of the date reported,
whichever occurs first, until the
leak is re-graded or no longer
results in a reading.

Source: PHMSA, 2002

16.3.2 Hazard Profile
Past Events
PHMSA records of natural gas pipeline events in the State of California do not include any events in Santa Clara County. The Bay Area has not experienced a hazardous materials release event with a regional impact. Hazardous material releases are often localized due to the limited release of such events.329F
330
Location
All technological hazards including hazardous materials incidents, transportation incidents, pipeline hazards, and power failure are local in nature, but may cross jurisdictional lines.

Severity
The impact of leaks or spills of hazardous materials on the environment depends on the scale of the incident, the materials involved and the location of the spill. Spills along the California coast are well documented.

Warning Time
There is rarely any warning time before a leak or spill of hazardous materials. Explosions or fires associated with pipeline incidents can occur instantly and escalate quickly. 330 California Office of Emergency Services. (2018). 2018 State of California Hazard Mitigation Plan. https://www.caloes.ca.gov/office-of-the-director/operations/recovery-directorate/hazard-mitigation/state-hazardmitigation-planning/ Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 379
Critical Facilities and Infrastructure
It is unlikely that an oil spill will have a direct impact on most critical facilities and infrastructure. An important exception would be an oil spill near the intake of a water treatment plant, a power plant that uses water for cooling, or an industrial facility that uses water in its processing.

Environment
The impact of leaks or spills of hazardous materials on the environment depends on the scale of the incident, the materials involved and the sensitivity of the spill location. Spills can impact air quality, waterways, fish, and wildlife as well as damage habits.

Future Trends in Development
The anticipated additional development in the county’s urban areas, which are already near the pipelines (see Figure 75), will increase the number of people and businesses exposed to this hazard.

Cascading Impacts
Cascading impacts associated with the pipeline hazard include:
 Urban structure fires;
 Public health consequences for pipeline failures; and  Potential significant environmental impacts both long and short term, depending on the pipeline location.

16.3.3 Utility Failure, Power Outages, and Public Safety Power Shutoff Utility Failure
Utility failure is defined as any interruption or loss of utility service due to disruption of service transmission caused by accident, sabotage, natural hazards, or equipment failure. A significant utility failure is defined as any incident of a long duration, which would require the involvement of the local and/or state emergency management organizations to coordinate provision of food, water, heating, cooling, and shelter. Widespread outages can occur without warning or as a result of a forecasted event.

Generally, warning times are short in the case of utility failure. In cases where a failure is caused by natural hazards, greater warning time is possible.

Except for the cities of Palo Alto and Santa Clara, Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) is responsible for operating and maintaining the electrical transmission and distribution system in the OA. The utility supplies electricity to an approximate population of 1.7 million residential and business customers in 1,260 square miles of the OA. PG&E has both overhead and underground lines throughout the OA. The Silicon Valley Clean Energy Authority was created to help generate electricity from clean sources in the OA and currently serves 270,000 residents and businesses.

Wastewater and potable water utility restoration are essential to community continuity and recovery.

Interruption of these services may have cascading economic and environmental impacts.

Utility failure can cause cascading impacts including:
 Chemical accidents can occur after power is restored to industrial facilities. Power interruptions at chemical handling plants are of particular concern because of the potential for a chemical spill during restart (EPA, 2001).
 Without proper procedures for backup of data and systems, the loss of data, systems, and telecommunications is a risk incurred by utility failure. Data and telecommunications provide a primary method for service to the community by the government and the private sector. A loss of Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 380
data or a system could result in loss of emergency dispatch capabilities, emergency planning services, infrastructure monitoring capabilities, access to statistical data, and loss of financial and personnel records. Loss of communication capability by first responders could have negative impacts on public safety. Backup systems such as amateur radio operators may be required during disaster to augment communications capabilities. Power outages can also lead to instances of civil disturbance, including looting.

Power Outages
Power outages are defined as any electrical system failure due to an unplanned disruption of service transmission caused by natural hazards, cyber-attacks, transportation accidents, accidental constructionrelated damage, sabotage, equipment failure or an intentional interruption through rolling blackouts or power shutoffs.

A significant outage is an incident of a long duration, which would require the involvement of the local and/or state emergency management organizations to coordinate provision of food, water, heating, cooling, and shelter. Widespread outages can occur without warning or as a result of a forecasted event.

Generally, warning times are short in the case of utility failure. In cases where a failure is caused by natural hazards, greater warning time is possible. In the OA, electric power is provided to the cities by ten utilities, as shown in Table 123.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 381
Table 123: Electric Providers in Santa Clara County30F
331
Jurisdiction
Commercial
Energy of
California
Freedom
Energy
Hudson
Energy
Pacific
Gas and
Electric
Company
Palo Alto
Utilities
Pilot
Power
Group
Public
Power &
Utility of
Maryland
San José
Clean
Energy
Silicon
Valley
Power
StateWise
Energy
Campbell 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Cupertino 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Gilroy 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Los Altos 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Los Altos
Hills

14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Los Gatos 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Milpitas 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Monte
Sereno

14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Morgan Hill 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Mountain
View

14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Palo Alto 1.30% 1.30% 1.30% 1.30% 90.88% 1.30% 1.30% 1.30% 1.30% 1.30% San José 12.52% 12.52% 12.52% 12.52% 12.52% 12.52% 12.52% 12.38% 12.52% 12.52% Santa Clara 49.92% 50.08%
Saratoga 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% Sunnyvale 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 14.29% 331 Find Energy LLC. (2022 August 9). Santa Clara County, California Electricity Rates and Statistics. https://findenergy.com/ca/santa-clara-county-electricity/#citycoverage Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 382

16.3.4 Hazard Profile
Public Safety Power Shutoff
In 2012, the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) ruled that the California Public Utility Code gives electric utilities the authority to shut off electric power to protect public safety, since power supply systems have the potential to ignite wildfires.

These shutoffs typically end within 24 hours after the weather conditions have subsided but may extend beyond the 24-hour timeframe, depending on conditions. An extended power outage due to a power shutoff, is likely to have the same impacts on a community as described above for an unplanned power outage.

Past Events
The California Public Utilities Commission collects and compiles data on public safety power shutoffs Their records from 2019 through October 2021 show that the number of days with power shutoffs anywhere in the system has increased each year (see Table 124).

Table 124: Power Shutoffs Statewide31F
332
Year
Calendar Days
with a Power
Shutoff
Anywhere in
California
Power Shutoff Duration
Shortest Longest
2019 26 0 days, 1 hr., 19 min. 5 days, 21 hr., 0 min.
2020 31 0 days, 0 hr., 16 min. 5 days, 10 hr., 32 min.
2021 (through 10/22/21) 42 0 days, 2 hr., 52 min. 4 days, 18 hr., 38 min.

Location
Each power shutoff is linked to a specific circuit, but on many days, multiple circuits experience shutdowns, resulting in widespread power outages. Power loss from other causes is typically limited to local areas but could also affect larger regions.

Severity
The severity of power loss of any type relates to the number of days without power and the situation of the population and businesses without power. A 16-minute power loss is not significant to most, but to a person with a critical electrical medical device the loss would be severe. A loss of power for four days would be considered severe by all.
332 Union of Concerned Scientists. (2022, February 2). California Utilities Shut Off Power for Fewer People, But Too Many Are Still in the Dark. https://blog.ucsusa.org/mark-specht/california-utilities-shut-off-power-for-fewer-people-buttoo-many-are-still-in-the-dark/ Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 383
Warning Time
Warning time for power outages will depend on the cause. An outage caused by hitting a distribution line or by an accident at a substation will occur without warning. However, an outage caused by weather conditions may come with some advance notice. Public safety power shutoffs are intended to provide adequate warning time.

Critical Facilities and Infrastructure
The impact of power outage on the facilities themselves is likely to be minimal but disruption of critical services would be significant.

Environment
The impact of power outage on the environment is unlikely but not impossible.

Future Trends in Development
In a growing community, more people and more businesses mean more are inconvenienced and/or negatively impacted by power outages.

Cascading Impacts
A county or city in the dark because of a power outage or shutdown could see an increase in crime.

Other impacts could include the following:
 Individuals would not have use of power-dependent medical equipment.  Chemical accidents can occur after power is restored to industrial facilities. Power interruptions at chemical handling plants are of particular concern because of the potential for a chemical spill during restart.32F
333
 Disrupting communications.
 Without proper procedures for backup of data and systems, the loss of data, systems, and telecommunications is a risk incurred by power outages. Data and telecommunications provide a primary method for service to the community by the government and the private sector. A loss of data or a system could result in loss of emergency dispatch capabilities, emergency planning services, infrastructure monitoring capabilities, access to statistical data, and loss of financial and personnel records. Loss of communication capability by first responders could have negative impacts on public safety. Backup systems such as amateur radio operators may be required during disasters to augment communications capabilities.  Closing retail businesses, grocery stores, gas stations, ATMs, banks, and other services.  Causing food spoilage and water contamination.
 Discomfort for those living without heat or without cooling during the outage.  Power outages can also lead to instances of civil disturbance, including looting. 333 Environmental Protection Agency. (2021, February). Risk of Chemical Accidents During Process Startup. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-02/documents/ncistartupsafety-enforcementalert.pdf Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 384

16.4 Epidemic and Pandemic
An outbreak occurs when there are more cases of a particular disease than expected in each area, or among a specific group of people, over a particular period of time. Epidemic has a similar definition, but generally refers to when a larger number of people or larger geographic area are experiencing an outbreak. In an outbreak or epidemic, it is presumed that the cases are related to one another or that they have a common cause.3F
334 A pandemic then refers to an epidemic which has spread over a large area such as an entire country, or even a continent, usually affecting a larger number of people.

The Santa Clara County Department of Public Health is responsible for protecting and improving the health of the community within the OA. The public health department responds to public health related emergencies and disasters and supports field responders at medical and rescue incidents. The OA has numerous health care facilities within its borders, including the following:
 The Stanford Health Care-Stanford Hospital in Stanford  El Camino Hospital in Mountain View
 Santa Clara Medical Center, in Santa Clara
 Good Samaritan Hospital in San José
 Kaiser Permanente San José Medical Center
 Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital at Stanford
The following sections describe commonly recognized human health hazards that are a concern in the OA.

COVID-19
In late 2019, patients were reported exhibiting symptoms of an abnormal flu-like illness. The initial outbreak rapidly expanded across the world over the next few months and became known as COVID-19, a respiratory disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, a type of coronavirus. The disease spreads from personto-person, usually through close contact such as when someone in conversational distance coughs, sneezes, speaks, sings, or breathes.34F
335 The disease can also spread through the air in congested areas where people tend to conjugate and through touching surfaces contaminated by the virus.

Symptoms of COVID-19 include fevers, chills, and sore throat. Other symptoms include muscle aches, severe fatigue or tiredness, headache, new and persistent cough, shortness of breath, and loss or change of sense of taste or smell. Symptoms usually begin within 5-6 days from the time of exposure.

However, some people with the disease remain asymptomatic. It is believed that some asymptomatic people may have been able to transmit the disease to others, but further research is needed. Everyone is able to be infected although older people, people with pre-existing conditions, and people who are pregnant are more likely to be infected or have a serious infection.

By March 4, 2020, Governor Gavin Newsom declared a State of Emergency to make additional resources available, formalize emergency actions already underway across multiple state agencies and departments, and help the state prepare for broader spread of COVID-19. The proclamation came as the number of positive California cases rose and following one official COVID-19 death. Since then, cases 334 Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Lesson 1: Introduction to Epidemiology. https://www.cdc.gov/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson1/section11.html 335 World Health Organization. (December 2021). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): How is it transmitted? https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/question-and-answers-hub/q-a-detail/coronavirusdisease-covid-19-how-is-ittransmitted?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI_oSJxvnq_gIVFdiGCh2sYQe4EAAYASAAEgJByfD_BwE Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 385
continued to rise and over 1.1 million people died of COVID-19 in the United States alone. Measures were implemented to reduce the rapid spread including social distancing, mandatory testing, and isolation and quarantine policies.

Figure 77 illustrates the course of COVID-19 in Santa Clara County from onset through January 2023. As this plan is being prepared, the California COVID-19 State of Emergency ended on February 28, 2023, and the COVID-19 national emergency and public health emergency is scheduled to end on May 11, 2023.

Figure 77: Santa Clara COVID Cases 2020–202335F
336
Almost 7,000 cases of COVID-19 per day were recorded across the county at the peak of the pandemic, as shown in Table 125, but the percentages of each city’s population that were infected ranged from 9.6% in Monte Sereno to 37.3% in Gilroy.
336 Santa Clara County Public Health. (2023). COVID Cases and Deaths Dashboard. https://covid19.sccgov.org/dashboard-cases-and-deaths
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 386
Table 125: COVID-19 Cases Countywide and by City of Residence36F 337
County/City Cases Population Rate City Cases Population Rate Santa Clara
Countya
496,338 1,885,508 26.3% Monte Sereno 331 3,492 9.5%
Campbell 10,005 42,470 23.6% Morgan Hill 13,696 43,876 31.2% Cupertino 8,523 60,614 14.1% Mountain
View
13,885 80,993 17.1%
Gilroy 20,715 55,525 37.3% Palo Alto 10,714 67,019 16.0% Los Altos 4,913 30,588 16.1% San José 285,709 1,026,658 27.8% Los Altos
Hills
1,231 8,517 14.5% Santa Clara 27,388 126,209 21.7%
Los Gatos 6,805 30,922 22.0% Saratoga 4,540 30,886 14.7% Milpitas 17,293 77,457 22.3% Sunnyvale 27,079 152,323 17.8% a Countywide total (includes city cases).

The spread and scope of COVID-19 was more than sufficient for it to be declared a pandemic. The only comparable outbreak in modern times could be the 1918 flu pandemic which affected an estimated one third of the world’s population. The two pandemics shared similar characteristics; their exact origins are unknown, it took multiple years for the diseases to run their course, and they required significant local, regional, and global efforts to respond and recover from.

Today, COVID-19 still represents a series threat however, some of that threat has been mitigated by the development of COVID testing capabilities and vaccines. COVID vaccines have been shown to effectively decrease the severity and likelihood of infection. COVID-19 is expected to be endemic, meaning that it will remain present in certain parts of the world with relatively low spread except for occasional outbreaks.

For this reason, it will continue to be a challenge that public health professionals will have to prepare for and respond to. There are still many unknowns about the disease as well. One significant threat is being referred to as “long COVID” or Post-COVID Conditions (PCC). Some people who develop the disease are experiencing long-term symptoms that continue or develop after the initial infection. These symptoms can include a wide range of problems including tiredness, fatigue, fever, difficulty breathing, coughing, difficulty thinking of concentrating, and more. While scientists work to develop effective treatment, the public, government, and private sector should be aware of this poorly understood condition.37F 338
Disease Outbreaks
In addition to COVID-19, there have been other major disease outbreaks within Santa Clara County since 2018 (see Table 126).38F
339
337 Santa Clara County Public Health. (2023). COVID Cases and Deaths Dashboard. https://covid19.sccgov.org/dashboard-cases-and-deaths
338 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (December 2022). Long COVID. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/long-termeffects/index.html?s_cid=11841:%2Blong%20%2Bcovid:sem.b:p:RG:GM:gen:PTN:FY23 339 California Office of Emergency Services. (2023). California State Hazard Mitigation Plan – Part 3. https://www.caloes.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/Hazard-Mitigation/Documents/California-SHMP_PublicReview_Vol1- Part3.pdf
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Lyme Disease
Lyme disease is caused by certain bacteria (called Borrelia burgdorferi) that can spread from the bite of an infected western blacklegged tick. Lyme disease may start as a mild illness that begins 3 to 30 days after a tick bite and might easily be mistaken for other common illnesses like a cold or flu. Signs and symptoms also can include a red, painless rash that may spread over time. If Lyme disease is not treated, it might develop into more severe health problems.39F
340
Valley Fever
Valley fever (also called coccidioidomycosis or “cocci”) is a disease caused by a fungus that grows in the soil and dirt in some areas of California and the southwestern United States. People and animals can get sick when they breathe in dust that contains the Valley fever fungus. This fungus usually infects the lungs and can cause respiratory symptoms including cough, fever, chest pain, and tiredness.340F 341
West Nile Virus
West Nile Virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne disease that was first detected in the United States in 1999. WNV first appeared in California in 2003, and by 2004, WNV had spread to all 58 counties. In 2022, there was one human case, 26 dead birds and 23 mosquito samples taken.341F 342
Risk of infection is reduced through the coordinated efforts of local and state public health and vector control agencies. People can protect themselves from WNV by taking precautions to prevent mosquito bites.342F
343
Table 126: Disease Outbreaks Identified in Santa Clara County, 2018–202234F 344
Disease Outbreaks 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
COVID-19 x x x
Lyme Disease x x
Valley Fever x x x x x
West Nile Virus x x x x
Other Diseases of Concern
Influenza
Epidemics of the flu typically occur in the fall and winter. Because flu seasons fluctuate in length and severity, a single estimate cannot be used to summarize influenza-associated deaths. Figure 78 depicts the weekly percentage of emergency department visits for influenza-like illness in Santa Clara County by influenza season. The most recent reports are for February 22, 2023. 340 California Department of Public Health. (n.d.) Lyme Disease. https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/Pages/LymeDisease.aspx 341 California Department of Public Health. (n.d.). What is Valley Fever? https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/pages/Coccidioidomycosis.aspx 342 California Department of Public Health. (n.d.) 2022 West Nile Virus Activity in California. West Nile. https://westnile.ca.gov/
343California Department of Public Health. (n.d.) West Nile Virus. https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/Pages/WestNileVirus.aspx 344 California Department of Public Health. (n.d.) Diseases and Conditions. https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Pages/allDiseases.aspx
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Figure 78: Weekly Percentage of Emergency Department Visits for Influenza-Like Illness in Santa Clara County, 2019, to February 22, 202334F
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H1N1
In April 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued a health advisory on an outbreak of influenzalike illness caused by a new subtype of influenza A (A/H1N1) in Mexico and the United States. The disease spread rapidly, and in June the WHO declared an H1N1 pandemic, marking the first global pandemic since the 1968 Hong Kong flu. In October, the U.S. declared H1N1 a national emergency. In August 2010, the WHO declared an end to the pandemic globally. H1N1 viruses and seasonal influenza viruses are co-circulating in many parts of the world. It is likely that the 2009 H1N1 virus will continue to spread for years to come, like a regular seasonal influenza virus.

H5N1/H7N9
The highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza virus is an influenza A subtype that occurs mainly in birds, causing high mortality among birds and domestic poultry. Outbreaks of highly pathogenic H5N1 among poultry and wild birds are ongoing in a number of countries.

H5N1 virus infections of humans are rare, and most cases have been associated with direct poultry contact during poultry outbreaks. Rare cases of limited human-to-human spread of H5N1 virus may have occurred, but there is no evidence of sustained human-to-human transmission. Nonetheless, because all influenza viruses have the ability to change and mutate, scientists are concerned that H5N1 viruses one day could be able to infect humans more easily and spread more easily from one person to another, potentially causing another pandemic.
345 Santa Clara County Public Health. (2023). Influenza Report. https://publichealthproviders.sccgov.org/diseases/influenza/influenza-report Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 389
While the H5N1 virus does not now infect people easily, infection in humans is much more serious when it occurs than is infection with H1N1. More than half of people reported infected with H5N1 have died.

Infections in humans and poultry by a new avian influenza A virus (H7N9) continue to be occasionally.

The last outbreak was in 2017 in China. Another case was reported in Malaysia. While mild illness in human cases has been seen, most patients have had severe respiratory illness, and some have died.

Source investigation by Chinese authorities is ongoing. Many of the people infected with H7N9 reportedly have had contact with poultry. However, some cases reportedly have not had such contact. Close contacts of confirmed H7N9 patients are being followed to determine whether any human-to- human spread of H7N9 is occurring. No sustained person-to-person spread of the H7N9 virus has been found at this time. However, based on previous experience with avian flu viruses, some limited human- to-human spread of this the virus would not be surprising.

As of the time of this writing, there is currently an outbreak of avian flu in birds. Over 58 million birds have been impacted, primarily in North and South Dakota345F
346. Santa Clara County has not reported any cases
of avian influenza. The first case of influenza A (H5N1) in humans was reported in the U.S. in April 2022.

Despite the unlikely transmission of the bird flu to humans, the CDC still recommends preventative measures for those exposed to infected birds. No cases of H7N9 have been detected in people in the United States.

Smallpox
Smallpox is a sometimes-fatal infectious disease. There is no specific treatment, and the only prevention is vaccination. Symptoms include raised bumps on the face and body of an infected person. The oldest evidence of smallpox was found on the body of Pharaoh Ramses V of Egypt who died in 1157 BC.

Outbreaks have occurred from time to time for thousands of years, but the disease is now eradicated after a successful worldwide vaccination program. The last case of smallpox in the United States was in 1949. The last naturally occurring case in the world was in Somalia in 1977. As of the publication of this document, there are no cases of smallpox in the world. Currently only two locations in the world have samples of smallpox: The Center for Disease Control (CDC) in Atlanta and the Ivanovsky Institute of Virology in Russia.

After the disease was eliminated, routine vaccination among the general public was stopped. Therefore, any cases of smallpox in the world would be considered an immediate international emergency. In 2003, the Wisconsin Division of Public Health conducted an investigation of state residents who became ill after having contact with prairie dogs. The cases appeared in May and June of 2003, and symptoms in the human cases included fever, cough, pox-like rash and swollen lymph nodes. CDC laboratory test results indicated that the cause of the human illness was Monkeypox, an orthopox virus that could be transmitted by prairie dogs. This outbreak, and the potential use of smallpox as a weapon of bioterrorism, brought the fear of smallpox back to the forefront of the population. A detailed nationwide smallpox response plan created at the end of 2002 is designed to quickly contain a potential outbreak and vaccinate the population.
346 U.S. Department of Agriculture. (May 2023). 2022-2023 Confirmations of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Commercial and Backyard Flocks. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/animal-diseaseinformation/avian/avian-influenza/hpai-2022/2022-hpai-commercial-backyard-flocks Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 390
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers
Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) are a group of illnesses caused by several distinct families of viruses.

VHF describes a multisystem syndrome (multiple systems in the body are affected). Characteristically, the overall vascular system is damaged and the body’s ability to regulate itself is impaired. These symptoms are often accompanied by hemorrhage (bleeding); however, the bleeding itself is rarely life- threatening.

While some types of hemorrhagic fever viruses can cause relatively mild illnesses, many cause severe, life-threatening disease.

The viruses that cause VHFs are distributed over much of the globe. However, because each virus is associated with one or more particular host species, the virus and the disease it causes are usually seen only where the host species live. Some hosts, such as the rodent species carrying several of the New World arenaviruses, live in geographically restricted areas. Therefore, the risk of getting VHFs caused by these viruses is restricted to those areas. Other hosts range over continents, such as the rodents that carry viruses that cause the Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in North and South America, or the rodents that carry viruses that cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in Europe and Asia.

Ebola
The 2014 Ebola virus outbreak was unprecedented in geographical reach and impact on health care systems across the globe. This was the largest and deadliest Ebola virus outbreak ever recorded. It was the first time the West African countries of Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Mali, and Senegal saw the virus. Ebola is more common in Central African countries, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan, where it was first discovered in 1976. It was also the first time that Ebola made it to the United States and Europe, prompting world-wide preparedness and response efforts. The outbreak was closely monitored, and traveler screenings were developed for those returning from West Africa.

In August 2014 two U.S. healthcare workers returned to the United States for treatment for Ebola. The case that most impacted the health care system in the United States was a patient diagnosed with Ebola in Dallas, Texas who died due to Ebola in October 2014. The nurse who provided care for him later tested positive for Ebola. This caused responses across the country from hospitals, emergency medical teams, fire departments and public health agencies to enhance isolation precautions, develop emergency policies, train with personal protective equipment, and conduct multi-agency emergency exercises in case the spread of Ebola became a pandemic.

Before the 2014 outbreak, only 2,200 cases of Ebola had been recorded and 68 percent were fatal.

Twenty percent of new Ebola infections were linked to burial traditions in which family and community members wash and touch dead bodies before burial. In Guinea, 60 percent of Ebola infections were linked to traditional burial practices.

Plague
Plague is a potentially fatal infectious disease of animals and humans caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. People usually get plague from being bitten by a flea that is carrying the plague bacterium or by handling an infected animal. Today, modern antibiotics are effective against plague, but if an infected person is not treated promptly, the disease is likely to cause illness or death.

Plague is an ancient disease but outbreaks throughout the world continue. Major plague epidemics occurred in the middle of the sixth century in Egypt, Europe, and Asia; during the 14th century in Europe, following caravan routes; in the 18th century in Austria and the Balkans; and in the late 19th century worldwide (but mostly in China and India). Manchuria in 1910–1911 witnessed about 60,000 deaths due to pneumonic plague with a repeat in 1920–1921. A minor outbreak occurred as recently as the summer of 1994 in Surat, India, closely following an earthquake in September 1993. Globally, the WHO reports 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague every year.

In North America, plague is found in certain animals and their fleas from the Pacific Coast to the Great Plains, and from southwestern Canada to Mexico. The last urban plague epidemic in the United States Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 391
occurred in Los Angeles in 1924–25. Since then, human plague in the U.S. has occurred as mostly scattered cases in rural areas (an average of 10 to 15 persons each year per the CDC). Most human cases in the United States occur in northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, southern Colorado, California, southern Oregon, and far western Nevada.

Zika Virus
Zika is a disease transmitted by yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti) and the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus). An Aedes mosquito can only transmit Zika virus after it bites a person who has this virus in their blood. The most common symptoms of Zika are fever, rash, joint pain, and conjunctivitis (red eyes). The illness is usually mild, with symptoms lasting for several days to a week after being bitten by an infected mosquito. People usually do not get sick enough to go to the hospital, and they rarely die from the Zika virus. For this reason, many people might not realize they have been infected. However, Zika virus infection during pregnancy can cause a serious birth defect called microcephaly (abnormally small head and brain), as well as other severe fetal brain defects. Once a person has been infected, he or she is likely to be protected from future infections. Zika virus is not spread through casual contact but can be spread by infected men to their sexual partners. There is a growing association between Zika and Guillain-Barré Syndrome, a disease affecting the nervous system.

The mosquitos that carry Zika are not native to California and from 2015 to the publishing of this document, there has been no local mosquito-borne transmission of Zika virus in California.346F 347 However,
infestations have been reported in multiple counties in California. Most cases were documented in people who were infected while traveling outside the United States. The CDC maintains a list of countries where zika has been reported. Required reporting for Zika in California began in 2016. These numbers may be underestimated given multiple factors, including the fact many people are asymptomatic. Currently, the represent a decrease in cases in Santa Clara County. Thirty-six cases were reported from 2015 to 2016, 14 in 2017, 8 in 2018, 3 in 2019, and no cases since.

16.4.2 Hazard Profile
Location
These diseases are a worldwide threat, occasionally increasing in severity in some locations. Areas with higher concentrations of vulnerable populations are more likely to experience a serious outbreak.

Severity
The severity can range from very localized, in just case of just a few infected, to severe with widespread infection and complications. Widespread sickness and loss of life have resulted from the COVID-19 Pandemic. The most recent totals available as this plan is being written show a total of 496,338 confirmed cases and 2,714 deaths in Santa Clara County.

Warning Time
The first human cases of the diseases discussed in this MJHMP appeared with very little warning, as did the start of recent outbreaks. Air travel radically increases the speed at which disease spreads around the world. Today’s communication does provide warning to local communities of diseases which could be a problem for them in the future.
347 The Mercury News. (2016, March). Four Zika virus cases reported in Bay Area. https://www.mercurynews.com/2016/03/03/four-zika-virus-cases-reported-in-bay-area/ Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 392
Critical Facilities and Infrastructure
No direct impact is expected on the facilities, but the operation of medical-related facilities can and have been overwhelmed. The operation of critical infrastructure can be impacted by employee absence due to illness.

Environment
Epidemic, pandemic, and vector-borne diseases can be directly or indirectly tied to environmental impacts. Air pollution in California dropped suddenly during the COVID-19 lockdown between March 19 and May 7, 2020. Changes in the environment, due to human stressors or climate change, may increase vector-borne diseases and drive disease emergence in wildlife which could be transmitted to humans.347F 348
Future Trends in Development
Future development in Santa Clara County is not anticipated to have any direct impact on the risk of epidemic/pandemic disease. There could be an indirect impact from the development of buildable lands in that the population that could be exposed to this hazard would be increased. However, no direct impact is expected.

Cascading Impacts
In general, cascading impacts are not anticipated. A widespread pandemic like COVID-19 could threaten global supply chains and the local economy due to disruptions, delays, and shutdowns due to preventative employee health measures and lack of healthy workers.

16.5 Fog
The National Weather Service describes nine types of fog.348F 349 Fog in the Santa Clara County OA has
different origins depending on the time of year. In summer, fog forms when warm, moist, and stable air is blown across a cooler surface (land or water). The air temperature falls until the dew point is reached and condensation occurs. Fog typically occurs in the Bay Area in June, July, and August. It is usually foggy in the morning, with fog burning off as the temperatures rise.

In winter, fog typically originates from the Great Valley. Radiation (ground) fog forms in the moist regions of the Sacramento River Delta and arrives to the region via Suisun and San Pablo Bays and San Francisco Bays on cool easterly winds. While this type of fog is less frequent than summer fog, appearing one winter and not again for years, it is typically denser and more likely to lead to significantly reduced visibility.349 F
350
The fog typical for the San Francisco Bay Area is known as advection fog. This type of fog forms when warm, moist, and stable air is blown across a cooler surface (land or water). The air temperature falls until the dew point is reached and condensation occurs. Fog typically occurs in the Bay Area in the June, July, and August. It is usually foggy in the morning, with fog burning off as the temperatures rise. 348 Semenza JC, Rocklöv J, Ebi KL. (May 2022). Climate Change and Cascading Risks from Infectious Disease. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9334478/
349 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). National Weather Service Glossary. https://w1.weather.gov/glossary/index.php?word=fog
350 L.A. Times. (n.d.). Inside the return of Tule fog in California’s Central Valley. https://www.latimes.com/projects/return-tule-fog-california-central-valley Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 16: Other Hazards of Interest 393

16.5.1 Hazard Profile
Past Events
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Storm Events Database reports 5 events of dense fog since the last plan update. Dense fog means the visibility was limited to a quarter of a mile or less.

However, this database does not account for the more common fog events in the OA, which typically occur in the morning when the temperatures are cool, and the relative humidity is high.

Location, Frequency, and Warning Time
Fog can occur almost anywhere during any season and is classified based on how it forms, which is related to where it forms. Certain seasons are more likely to have foggy days or nights based on a number of factors, including topography, nearby bodies of water, and wind conditions. Fog can form overnight. Local National Weather Service offices issue a Dense Fog Advisory when widespread dense fog develops. The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) has implemented a fog detection and warning system that uses speed and visibility detectors to assess road conditions, traffic management software to process data and control the field devices, and changeable message signs to provide information to the traveling public.350F
351
Severity
Heavy fog is particularly hazardous when it reduces visibility to ¼ mile or less. Although fog seems like a minor hazard, it can have significant impacts. Severe fog incidents can close roads, cause vehicle accidents, cause airport delays, and impair the effectiveness of emergency response. The California Highway Patrol records and news reports describe highway accidents, many with serious injuries or deaths, due to low visibility in dense fog. Many of those accidents involve chain reaction crashes including recent crashes in Santa Clara County. Financial losses associated with transportation delays caused by fog have not been calculated in the United States, but it is likely to be substantial.

Critical Facilities and Infrastructure
Critical facilities and infrastructure in the Santa Clara County OA would only be impacted indirectly by the fog hazard.

Environment
In the context of the MJHMP Update, fog is considered to be a hazard, but fog plays a key role in California’s ecosystems and agricultural sector.

Future Trends in Development
As more lands are developed in the Santa Clara County OA and more people use the area’s highways, the fog hazard’s impact will increase.

Cascading Impacts
Potential cascading impacts of dense fog involve delays in response to all other hazard events in the vicinity and relate to highway accidents, some of which could involve hazardous materials. 351 Berman, M., Liu, J., and Justison, L. (2009). Caltrans Fog Detection and Warning System. https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/27652
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Scenario
The worst-case scenario for the fog hazard is probably the situation today. The negatives of delays, inconvenience, and potential traffic accidents are clear. Increases in temperatures in the Santa Clara County OA and likely related decreases in fog could have a more long-term negative impact on the environment and agriculture.

16.6 Identified Needs
This assessment of the other hazards of interest led to identification of the following needs throughout the Santa Clara County OA:
 Continue regular and redundant emergency preparedness training for field level responders (police, fire, and public works) and public information staff in order to respond quickly in the event of a disaster associated with the identified hazards of interest. Enhance awareness training for all local government employees to recognize threats or suspicious activity in order to prevent an incident from occurring.
 Continue all facets of hazardous materials team training and response through commitment of resources from the Environmental Health Department, local fire departments, and potential funding through homeland security budgets.
 Continue to improve response times for public safety throughout the Santa Clara County OA so as to reduce exposure to human-caused incidents. Maintain appropriate staffing levels of public safety personnel to address vulnerabilities identified in this section.  Continue to implement the hazardous materials business plan with enhancements, as warranted by the type of uses in the Santa Clara County OA and innovative technologies in preventing hazardous materials incidents.
 Continue to work proactively with industrial businesses regarding placards and labeling of containers, emergency plans and coordination, standardized response procedures, and notification of the types of materials being transported through the Santa Clara County OA. On at least an annual basis, conduct random inspections of transporters as allowed by the business; install mitigating techniques at critical locations; implement routine hazard communication initiatives; enhance security along the transportation corridors; and continuously look to the use of safer alternative products to conduct all business and transportation operations.  Participate in regional, state, and federal efforts to gather terrorism information at all levels and keep public safety officials briefed at all times regarding any local threats. Further develop response capabilities based on emerging threats.
 Commit support to the Bay Area Urban Area Security Initiative by dedicating fire, emergency medical services, emergency management grant managers, and police personnel to the program as funded with Homeland Security grants.
 Participate in the Cal OES Disaster Resistant California annual conference and other training sessions sponsored by regional, state, and federal agencies.  Use Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in future planning efforts as well as enhancing existing infrastructure and buildings to prevent or mitigate human-cause incidents.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design is an urban planning design process that integrates crime prevention with neighborhood design and community development. The process is based on the theory that the proper design and effective use of the built environment can reduce crime and the fear of crime and improve the quality of life. It creates an environment where the physical characteristics, building layout, and site planning allow inhabitants to become key agents in ensuring their own security.

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 Participate in regional training exercises per the requirements of Homeland Security Presidential Directive #8 in support of national preparedness. These training exercises may be sponsored by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security San José office, the Bay Area Urban Area Security Initiative, local government offices of homeland security, grant funds through Cal OES, or FEMA.

Training exercises test and evaluate the ability to coordinate the activities of local and state government first responders, volunteer organizations and the private sector in responding to terrorism and technological hazards. The trainings enhance interagency coordination, provide training to staff, test response and recovery capabilities, and implement the Standardized Emergency Management System, the National Incident Management System, and the California and national mutual aid systems.
 Work with the private sector to enhance and create business continuity plans to be followed in the event of an emergency.
 Review existing automatic aid and mutual aid agreements with other public safety agencies to identify opportunities for enhancement.
 Identify, relocate, or construct a redundant Emergency Operations Center in a location away from hazards.
 Maintain an emergency services information line that the public can contact 24 hours a day during an emergency to ask questions of emergency staff.  Coordinate with all school districts in the OA and individual cities to ensure that their emergency preparedness plans include preparation for human-caused incidents.  Encourage local businesses to adopt information technology and telecommunications recovery plans.
 Promote 72-hour self-sufficiency through the United Neighborhoods of Santa Clara County and other neighborhood associations, emergency preparedness efforts through local governments, emergency preparedness websites of local governments, civic organizations and the private sector, public outreach, and other means. Ensure inclusion of program information for people with disabilities and others with access and functional needs.  Prepare and present the human-caused hazard risk and preparedness program to the public through meetings, town hall gatherings, and preparedness fairs and outreach.  Maintain any and all citizen advisory groups and periodically e-mail emergency preparedness information including human-caused hazard preparedness instructions and reminders.  Support disease prevention through vaccination and personal emergency and disaster preparation to help reduce the impacts of human health hazards.  Integrate medical and response personnel in a unified command to provide care when needed in response to human health hazards.
 Adequately train and supply medical and response personnel.  Carry out up-to-date and functional all-hazard contingency planning.  Develop a system for informing the public with a unified message about the human health hazard.  Provide health agencies and facilities with surge capacity management and adaptation to the rising number and needs of the region.

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16.7 Related Plans
The following plans also address issues related to the “other hazards,” including response priorities.

Santa Clara County Operational Area Emergency Operations Plan and Annexes
The Santa Clara County OA Emergency Operations Plan is an all-hazards document describing the OA’s Emergency Operations organization, compliance with relevant legal statutes, other guidelines, and critical components of the Emergency Response System. The Emergency Operations Plan consists of threat summaries based on a Santa Clara County OA hazard analysis. This hazard analysis was conducted by Santa Clara County OEM staff, providing a description of the local area, risk factors and the anticipated nature of situations that could occur in the Santa Clara County OA. The Emergency Operations Plan is activated during extraordinary emergency situations associated with large-scale disasters or emergencies affecting the Santa Clara County OA.

Santa Clara County Public Health Department Plan
This Santa Clara County Public Health Department Plan outlines the efforts to prepare for response to a disaster that has a medical/health component. The Countywide Medical Response System plan is focused on the goal of terrorism preparedness, and addresses topics such as risk communications, decontamination, personal protective equipment, mass prophylaxis, education, training, and exercises.

Each topic identifies participating agencies, including fire, law enforcement, hospitals, emergency management, schools, the medical examiner, mental health services, and many others. The plan further enumerates a list of responsibilities to the Countywide Medical Response System for each identified agency, as well as a list of public health commitments through the system that will assist those agencies.

Hazardous Materials Business Plans
Hazardous materials business plans are implemented by Certified Unified Program Agencies within their jurisdictions, along with local fire departments to protect human health and the environment from hazardous materials incidents.

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17 Mitigation Strategy

17.1 Goals and Objectives
Hazard mitigation plans must identify goals for reducing long-term vulnerabilities to identified hazards (44 CFR Section 201.6(c)(3)(i)). A guiding principle, a set of goals and measurable objectives for this plan were reviewed and approved by the larger Planning Team based on data from the preliminary risk assessment and updates to mitigation priorities since the previous MJHMP. The guiding principle, goals, objectives, and actions in this plan all support each other. Goals were selected to support the guiding principle. Objectives were selected that met multiple goals. Actions were prioritized based on the action meeting multiple objectives.

17.1.1 Guiding Principle
A guiding principle focuses the range of objectives and actions to be considered. This is not a goal because it does not describe a hazard mitigation outcome, and it is broader than a hazard-specific objective. The guiding principle for this hazard mitigation plan is as follows:

To equitably reduce risk and increase resilience by establishing and promoting a comprehensive mitigation program and efforts to protect the Whole Community and environment from identified natural and humaninduced hazards.

17.1.2 Goals
The following are the mitigation goals for this plan:

1. Actively develop community awareness, understanding, and interest in hazard mitigation and empower the Operational Area to engage in the shaping of associated mitigation policies and programs.

2. Minimize potential for loss of life, injury, social impacts, and dislocation due to hazards.

3. Minimize potential for damage to property, economic impacts, and unusual public expense due to hazards.

4. Minimize likelihood and impact of hazards causing environmental damage or damaging open space/nature preserves in the County and preserving ecological connectivity in the region and by working with residents to help build community capacity to respond and adapt to hazards and emergencies.

5. Effectively deliver essential information to the whole community that promotes personal preparedness and includes advice to reduce personal vulnerability to hazards.

6. Encourage programs and projects that promote community resiliency by maintaining the functionality of critical Operational Area resources, facilities, and infrastructure.

7. Pursue feasible, cost-effective, grant eligible, and environmentally sound hazard mitigation measures.

8. Increase adaptive capacity to reduce risk from hazard impacts that stem from a changing climate.

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9. Remove barriers for local governments to access mitigation funding (broad vs. specific) and reduce the administrative pain points to recipient agencies during the project deployment and auditing phases.

The effectiveness of a mitigation strategy is assessed by determining how well these goals are achieved.

17.1.3 Objectives
Each selected objective meets multiple goals, serving as a stand-alone measurement of the effectiveness of a mitigation action, rather than as a subset of a goal. The objectives also are used to help establish priorities and have been reviewed and approved by the Mitigation Strategy Working Group, and the larger Planning Team. The objectives are as follows:

1. Establish and maintain partnerships in the identification and implementation of mitigation measures in the Operational Area.

2. Implement hazard mitigation programs and projects that protect life, property, and the environment.

3. Develop and provide updated information about threats, hazards, vulnerabilities, and mitigation strategies to state, regional, and local agencies, as well as private sector groups, communitybased organizations, and non-profits.

4. Improve understanding of the locations, potential impacts, and linkages among threats, hazards, vulnerability, and measures needed to protect life, property, and the environment.

5. Encourage the incorporation of mitigation best management measures into plans, codes, and other regulatory standards for public, private, and non-governmental entities within the Operational Area.

6. Inform the public on the risk exposure to natural hazards and ways to increase the public’s capability to prevent, prepare, respond, recover, and mitigate impacts of these events.

7. Advance community and natural environment sustainability and resilience to future impacts through preparation and implementation of state, regional, and local projects.

8. Reduce repetitive property losses from all hazards.

9. Where feasible and cost-effective, encourage property protection measures for vulnerable structures located in hazard areas.

10. Improve the process on how public agencies select systems that provide warning and emergency communications for a broad array of agencies. This includes improving the selection process and ensuring warning and emergency communications processes are effective and accessible.

11. Partner with educational institutions that provide research, case studies and the like to help bolster agency communication that demonstrates the value of hazard mitigation.

17.2 Mitigation Alternatives
Catalogs of natural hazard mitigation alternatives were developed that present a broad range of alternatives to be considered for use in the OA, in compliance with 44 CFR (Section 201.6(c)(3)(ii)). One catalog was developed for each natural hazard of concern evaluated in this plan. The catalogs present alternatives that are categorized in two ways:
 By who would have responsibility for implementation:
▪ Individuals (personal scale).
▪ Businesses (corporate scale).

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 399
▪ Government (government scale).
 By what the alternative would do:
▪ Manipulate the hazard.
▪ Reduce exposure to the hazard.
▪ Reduce vulnerability to the hazard.
▪ Increase the ability to respond to or be prepared for the hazard.

Hazard mitigation actions recommended in this plan were selected from among the alternatives presented in the catalogs. The catalogs provide a baseline of mitigation alternatives that are backed by a planning process, are consistent with the established goals and objectives, and are within the capabilities of the planning partners to implement. Some of these actions may not be feasible based on the selection criteria identified for this plan. The purpose of the catalog was to provide a list of what could be considered to reduce risk of the flood hazard within the OA. Actions in the catalog that are not included for the partnership’s action plan were not selected for one or more of the following reasons:
 The action is not feasible.
 The action is already being implemented.
 There is an apparently more cost-effective alternative.  The action does not have public or political support.

The catalogs for each hazard are presented in Table 127 through Table 134.

Table 127: Alternatives to Mitigate the Dam and Levee Failure Hazard What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Manipulate the
Hazard
None. Remove dams.

Remove levees.

Harden dams.

Remove dams.

Remove levees.

Harden dams.

Reduce Exposure to
the Hazard
Relocate out of dam
failure inundation
areas.

Replace earthen
dams with
hardened
structures.

Replace earthen dams with
hardened structures.

Relocate critical facilities out of
dam failure inundation areas.

Consider open space land use
in designated dam failure
inundation areas.

Reduce
Vulnerability to the
Hazard
Elevate home to
appropriate levels.

Flood-proof
facilities within
dam failure
inundation areas.

Adopt higher floodplain
standards in mapped dam
failure inundation areas.

Retrofit critical facilities within
dam failure inundation areas.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 400
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Increase the Ability
to Respond to or Be
Prepared for the
Hazard
Learn about risk
reduction for the dam
failure hazard.

Learn the evacuation
routes for a dam failure
event.

Educate yourself on
early warning systems
and the dissemination
of warnings.

Educate
employees on the
probable impacts
of a dam failure.

Develop a
continuity of
operations plan.

Map dam failure inundation
areas.

Enhance emergency
operations plan to include a
dam failure component.

Institute monthly
communications checks with
dam operators.

Inform the public on risk
reduction techniques.

Adopt real-estate disclosure
requirements for the re-sale of
property located within dam
failure inundation areas.

Consider the probable impacts
of climate in assessing the risk
associated with the dam failure
hazard.

Establish early warning
capability downstream of listed
high hazard dams.

Consider the residual risk
associated with protection
provided by dams in future
land use decisions.

Table 128: Alternatives to Mitigate the Drought Hazard
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Manipulate the
Hazard
None. None. Groundwater recharge
through stormwater
management
Reduce Exposure to
the Hazard
None. None. Identify and create
groundwater backup
sources.

Reduce Vulnerability
to the Hazard
Drought-resistant
landscapes.

Drought-resistant
landscapes.

Water use conflict
regulations.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 401
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Reduce water system
losses.

Modify plumbing
systems through water
saving kits.

Reduce private water
system losses.

Reduce water system
losses.

Distribute water saving
kits.

Increase the Ability to
Respond to or Be
Prepared for the
Hazard
Practice active water
conservation.

Practice active water
conservation.

Public education on
drought resistance.

Identify alternative
water supplies for times
of drought and create
mutual aid agreements
with alternative
suppliers.

Develop drought
contingency plan.

Develop criteria
“triggers” for droughtrelated actions.

Improve accuracy of
water supply forecasts.

Modify rate structure to
influence active water
conservation
techniques.

Table 129: Alternatives to Mitigate the Earthquake Hazard What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Manipulate the
Hazard
None. None. None.

Reduce
Exposure to the
Hazard
Locate outside of hazard
area (off soft soils).

Locate or relocate
mission-critical
functions outside
hazard area where
possible.

Locate critical facilities
or functions outside
hazard area where
possible.

Reduce
Vulnerability to
the Hazard
Retrofit structure (anchor
house structure to
foundation).

Build redundancy for
critical functions and
facilities.

Harden infrastructure.

Provide redundancy for
critical functions.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 402
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Secure household items that
can cause injury or damage
(such as water heaters,
bookcases, and other
appliances).

Build to higher design.

Retrofit critical buildings
and areas housing
mission-critical
functions.

Adopt higher regulatory
standards.

Increase the
Ability to
Respond to or Be
Prepared for the
Hazard
Practice “drop, cover, and
hold.”
Develop household
mitigation plan, such as
creating a retrofit savings
account, communication
capability with outside, and
72-hour self-sufficiency
during an event.

Keep cash reserves for
reconstruction.

Become informed on the
hazard and risk reduction
alternatives available.

Develop a post-disaster
action plan for your
household.

Adopt higher standard
for new construction;
consider “performancebased design” when
building new structures.

Keep cash reserves for
reconstruction.

Inform your employees
on the possible impacts
of earthquake and how
to deal with them at
your work facility.

Develop a continuity of
operations plan.

Provide better hazard
maps.

Provide technical
information and
guidance.

Enact tools to help
manage development
in hazard areas (e.g.,
tax incentives,
information).

Include retrofitting and
replacement of critical
system elements in
capital improvement
plan.

Develop strategy to
take advantage of postdisaster opportunities.

Warehouse critical
infrastructure
components such as
pipe, power line, and
road repair materials.

Develop and adopt a
continuity of operations
plan.

Initiate triggers guiding
improvements (such as
<50% substantial
damage or
improvements).

Further enhance
seismic risk
assessment to target
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 403
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale high hazard buildings
for mitigation
opportunities.

Develop a postdisaster action plan
that includes grant
funding and debris
removal components.

Table 130: Alternatives to Mitigate the Flooding Hazard What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Manipulate the
Hazard
Clear storm drains and
culverts.

Use low-impact
development techniques.

Clear storm drains
and culverts.

Use low-impact
development
techniques.

Maintain drainage system.

Institute low-impact
development techniques on
property.

Dredging, levee construction,
and providing regional
retention areas.

Structural flood control, levees,
channelization, or revetments.

Stormwater management
regulations and master
planning.

Acquire vacant land or
promote open space uses in
developing watersheds to
control increases in runoff.

Reduce
Exposure to the
Hazard
Locate outside of hazard
area.

Elevate utilities above
base flood elevation.

Use low-impact
development techniques.

Locate critical
facilities or functions
outside hazard area.

Use low-impact
development
techniques.

Locate or relocate critical
facilities outside of hazard
area.

Acquire or relocate identified
repetitive loss properties.

Promote open space uses in
identified high hazard areas
via techniques such as:
planned unit developments,
easements, setbacks,
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 404
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale greenways, sensitive area
tracks.

Adopt land development
criteria such as planned unit
developments, density
transfers, clustering.

Institute low impact
development techniques on
property.

Acquire vacant land or
promote open space uses in
developing watersheds to
control increases in runoff.

Reduce
Vulnerability to
the Hazard
Raise structures above
base flood elevation.

Elevate items within
house above base flood
elevation.

Build new homes above
base flood elevation.

Flood-proof structures.

Build redundancy for
critical functions or
retrofit critical
buildings.

Provide floodproofing when new
critical infrastructure
must be located in
floodplains.

Harden infrastructure, bridge
replacement program.

Provide redundancy for critical
functions and infrastructure.

Adopt regulatory standards
such as freeboard standards,
cumulative substantial
improvement or damage, lower
substantial damage threshold;
compensatory storage, nonconversion deed restrictions.

Stormwater management
regulations and master
planning.

Adopt “no-adverse impact”
floodplain management
policies that strive to not
increase the flood risk on
downstream communities.

Increase the
Ability to
Respond to or
Be Prepared for
the Hazard
Buy flood insurance.

Develop household plan,
such as retrofit savings,
communication with
outside, 72-hour selfsufficiency during and
after an event.

Keep cash reserves
for reconstruction.

Support and
implement hazard
disclosure for sale of
property in risk
zones.

Produce better hazard maps.

Provide technical information
and guidance.

Enact tools to help manage
development in hazard areas
(stronger controls, tax
incentives, and information).

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 405
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Solicit cost-sharing
through partnerships
with others on
projects with multiple
benefits.

Incorporate retrofitting or
replacement of critical system
elements in capital
improvement plan.

Develop strategy to take
advantage of post-disaster
opportunities.

Warehouse critical
infrastructure components.

Develop and adopt a continuity
of operations plan.

Consider participation in the
Community Rating System.

Maintain and collect data to
define risks and vulnerability.

Train emergency responders.

Create an elevation inventory
of structures in the floodplain.

Develop and implement a
public information strategy.

Charge a hazard mitigation
fee.

Integrate floodplain
management policies into
other planning mechanisms
within the OA.

Consider the probable impacts
of climate change on the risk
associated with the flood
hazard.

Consider the residual risk
associated with structural flood
control in future land use
decisions.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 406
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Enforce National Flood
Insurance Program.

Adopt a Stormwater
Management Master Plan.

Table 131: Alternatives to Mitigate the Landslide/Mass Movement Hazard What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Manipulate the
Hazard
Stabilize slope (dewater,
armor toe).

Reduce weight on top of
slope.

Minimize vegetation
removal and the
addition of impervious
surfaces.

Stabilize slope (dewater,
armor toe).

Reduce weight on top of
slope.

Stabilize slope (dewater,
armor toe).

Reduce weight on top of
slope.

Reduce Exposure
to the Hazard
Locate structures
outside of hazard area
(off unstable land and
away from slide-run out
area).

Locate structures outside
of hazard area (off
unstable land and away
from slide-run out area).

Acquire properties in
high-risk landslide areas.

Adopt land use policies
that prohibit the
placement of habitable
structures in high-risk
landslide areas.

Reduce
Vulnerability to the
Hazard
Retrofit home. Retrofit at-risk facilities. Adopt higher regulatory standards for new
development within
unstable slope areas.

Armor/retrofit critical
infrastructure against the
impact of landslides.

Increase the
Ability to Respond
to or Be Prepared
for the Hazard
Institute warning system
and develop evacuation
plan.

Keep cash reserves for
reconstruction.

Educate yourself on risk
reduction techniques for
landslide hazards.

Institute warning system
and develop evacuation
plan.

Keep cash reserves for
reconstruction.

Develop a continuity of
operations plan.

Produce better hazard
maps.

Provide technical
information and
guidance.

Enact tools to help
manage development in
hazard areas: better
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 407
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Educate employees on
the potential exposure to
landslide hazards and
emergency response
protocol.
land controls, tax
incentives, information.

Develop strategy to take
advantage of postdisaster opportunities.

Warehouse critical
infrastructure
components.

Develop and adopt a
continuity of operations
plan.

Educate the public on
the landslide hazard and
appropriate risk
reduction alternatives.

Table 132: Alternatives to Mitigate the Inclement Weather Hazard What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Manipulate the
Hazard
None. None. None.

Reduce Exposure
to the Hazard
None. None. None.

Reduce
Vulnerability to
the Hazard
Insulate house.

Provide redundant
heat and power.

Insulate structure.

Plant appropriate trees
near home and power
lines (“Right tree, right
place” National Arbor
Day Foundation
Program).

Relocate critical
infrastructure (such as
power lines)
underground.

Reinforce or relocate
critical infrastructure
such as power lines to
meet performance
expectations.

Install tree wire.

Harden infrastructure such as
locating utilities underground.

Trim trees back from power
lines.

Increase the
Ability to
Respond to or Be
Prepared for the
Hazard
Trim or remove trees
that could affect power
lines.

Trim or remove trees
that could affect
power lines.

Create redundancy.

Support programs such as
“Tree Watch” that proactively
manage problem areas
through use of selective
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 408
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Promote 72-hour selfsufficiency.

Obtain a NOAA
weather radio.

Obtain an emergency
generator.

Equip facilities with a
NOAA weather radio.

Equip vital facilities
with emergency power
sources.
removal of hazardous trees,
tree replacement, etc.

Increase communication
alternatives.

Modify land use and
environmental regulations to
support vegetation
management activities that
improve reliability in utility
corridors.

Modify landscape and other
ordinances to encourage
appropriate planting near
overhead power, cable, and
phone lines.

Provide NOAA weather radios
to the public.

Table 133: Alternatives to Mitigate the Tsunami Hazard
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Manipulate the
Hazard
None. None. Build wave abatement
structures (e.g., the
“Jacks” looking
structure designed by
the Japanese).

Reduce
Exposure to the
Hazard
Locate outside of hazard
area.

Locate structure or
mission critical functions
outside of hazard area
whenever possible.

Locate structure or
functions outside of
hazard area whenever
possible.

Harden infrastructure
for tsunami impacts.

Relocate identified
critical facilities
located in tsunami
high hazard areas.

Reduce
Vulnerability to
the Hazard
Apply personal property
mitigation techniques to your
home such as anchoring
Mitigate personal
property for the impacts
of tsunami.

Adopt higher
regulatory standards
that will provide higher
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 409
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale your foundation and
foundation openings to allow
flow through.
levels of protection to
structures built in a
tsunami inundation
area.

Utilize tsunami
mapping once
available, to guide
development away
from high-risk areas
through land use
planning.

Increase the
Ability to
Respond to or
Be Prepared for
the Hazard
Develop and practice a
household evacuation plan.

Support/participate in the
Redwood Coast Tsunami
Working Group.

Educate yourself on the risk
exposure from the tsunami
hazard and ways to minimize
that risk.

Develop and practice a
corporate evacuation
plan.

Support/participate in the
Redwood Coast Tsunami
Working Group.

Educate employees on
the risk exposure from
the tsunami hazard and
ways to minimize that
risk.

Create a probabilistic
tsunami map for the
OA.

Provide incentives to
guide development
away from hazard
areas.

Develop a tsunami
warning and response
system.

Provide residents with
tsunami inundation
maps.

Join NOAA’s Tsunami
Ready program.

Develop and
communicate
evacuation routes.

Enhance the public
information program to
include risk reduction
options for the
tsunami hazard.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 410
Table 134: Alternatives to Mitigate the Wildfire Hazard What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Manipulate the
Hazard
Clear potential fuels on
property such as dry
overgrown underbrush
and diseased trees.

Clear potential fuels
on property such as
dry underbrush and
diseased trees.

Clear potential fuels on
property such as dry
underbrush and diseased
trees.

Implement best
management practices on
public lands.

Reduce Exposure
to the Hazard
Create and maintain
defensible space around
structures.

Locate outside of
hazard area.

Mow regularly.

Create and maintain
defensible space
around structures and
infrastructure.

Locate outside of
hazard area.

Create and maintain
defensible space around
structures and infrastructure.

Locate outside of hazard
area.

Enhance building code to
include use of fire resistant
materials in high hazard
area.

Reduce
Vulnerability to
the Hazard
Create and maintain
defensible space around
structures and provide
water on site.

Use fire-retardant
building materials.

Create defensible
spaces around home.

Create and maintain
defensible space
around structures and
infrastructure and
provide water on site.

Use fire-retardant
building materials.

Use fire-resistant
plantings in buffer
areas of high wildfire
threat.

Create and maintain
defensible space around
structures and infrastructure.

Use fire-retardant building
materials.

Use fire-resistant plantings in
buffer areas of high wildfire
threat.

Consider higher regulatory
standards (such as Class A
roofing).

Establish biomass
reclamation initiatives.

Increase the
Ability to
Respond to or Be
Prepared for the
Hazard
Employ techniques from
the National Fire
Protection Association’s
Firewise Communities
program to safeguard
home.

Identify alternative water
supplies for firefighting.

Support Firewise
community initiatives.

Create /establish
stored water supplies
to be utilized for
firefighting.

More public outreach and
education efforts, including
an active Firewise program.

Possible weapons of mass
destruction funds available
to enhance fire capability in
high-risk areas.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 411
What Alternative
Would Do Personal Scale Corporate Scale Government Scale Install/replace roofing
material with noncombustible roofing
materials.

Identify fire response and
alternative evacuation
routes.

Seek alternative water
supplies.

Become a Firewise
community.

Use academia to study
impacts/solutions to wildfire
risk.

Establish/maintain mutual
aid agreements between fire
service agencies.

Create/implement fire plans.

Consider the probable
impacts of climate change
on the risk associated with
the wildfire hazard in future
land use decisions.

17.3 Santa Clara County 2023 Mitigation Action Plan
An action plan is a detailed document that identifies specific steps required to achieve a particular goal.

The document breaks down the goal into actionable and measurable tasks that can be easily followed and tracked. These actions are determined by the risk of natural hazards impacting a community and the identifying solutions. The purpose of an action plan is to define specific steps necessary for achieving a certain goal, including required resources and a timeline for completing tasks.

The 2017 Santa Clara County MJHMP included action items for the entire Operational Area. The participants did not choose to continue to identify area-wide actions and opted for actions by jurisdiction only. The area-wide actions were integrated as appropriate in the Santa Clara County Annex and their status is summarized in Volume II Section 13. Each individual jurisdictions and special districts information can be found in each annex in Volume 2.

The planning partners utilized the following criteria to prioritize action items into the categories of high, medium, or low.
 High Priority— A project that:
▪ Meets multiple goals and objectives (i.e., multiple hazards); ▪ Addresses multiple hazards;
▪ Has benefits that exceed cost;
▪ Has funding secured or is an ongoing project;
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 412
▪ Meets eligibility requirements for Hazard Mitigation Assistance grants; ▪ Can be completed in the short term (1 to 5 years);
▪ Addresses immediate short-term impacts of climate change; ▪ Benefits underserved and/or socially vulnerable populations; AND ▪ Considers the Multi-Benefit Criteria utilized by the Santa Clara County Climate Collaborative, including equity, long-term value, ecosystem benefit, community benefit, and crossjurisdictional alignment.  Medium Priority— A project that:
▪ Meets multiple goals and objectives;
▪ Addresses multiple hazards;
▪ Has benefits that exceed costs;
▪ Has funding has not been secured, but that is grant eligible under Hazard Mitigation Assistance grants or other grant programs;
▪ Project can be completed in the short term (1-5 years), once funding is secured. Medium priority projects will become high priority projects once funding is secured; ▪ Addresses immediate short-term impacts of climate change; ▪ Benefits underserved and/or socially vulnerable populations; AND ▪ Considers the Multi-Benefit Criteria utilized by the Santa Clara County Climate Collaborative, including equity, long-term value, ecosystem benefit, community benefit, and crossjurisdictional alignment.  Low Priority— A project that:
▪ Will mitigate the risk of at least one hazard;
▪ Has benefits that do not exceed the costs or are difficult to quantify:
▪ Does not have secured funding;
▪ Is not eligible for Hazard Mitigation Assistance grant funding; ▪ Has a timeline for completion that is long term (greater than 5 years). Low priority projects may be eligible for other sources of grant funding from other programs; ▪ May address impacts of climate change;
▪ May benefit underserved and/or socially vulnerable populations; AND ▪ Considers the Multi-Benefit Criteria utilized by the Santa Clara County Climate Collaborative, including equity, long-term value, ecosystem benefit, community benefit, and crossjurisdictional alignment.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 413
Table 135 County of Santa Clara 2023 Action Items
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC-1* Maintain, implement, and update as
appropriate, the County
unincorporated CWPP, while
expanding the planning scope to
integrate all of the Operational
Area’s jurisdictions. Create
defensible space programs on a
county-wide basis. Using the 2023
Santa Clara County CWPP as a
guide, implement fuel management
and fuel reduction treatment
throughout the county specifically
adjacent to areas classified as high
and extreme risk to structures to
reduce the potential for catastrophic
wildfire.

Wildfire Santa Clara County
Fire Department- orFireSafe Council
SCCFD
General
Budget;
County OEM
General
Budget;
HMGP;
PDM; EMPG
Ongoing Low
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 414
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC-2* CAL FIRE, South County Fire, and
the Santa Clara County Fire
Department should prepare for
coordinated wildfire response
operations through the
development of a Wildfire Annex to
the County's Emergency
Operations Plan. In August 2020 in
response to the SCU Lightning
Complex, the Wildfire Annex was
used to shed light into the response
and recovery activities that
unfolded.

Wildfire County OEM SCCFD
General
Budget;
County OEM
General
Budget;
HMGP;
EMPG
Short-term Low
SCC-4* Continue to promote programs that
mitigate vegetation fire, such as
diseased tree removal, creating
defensible space, and FireWise
community programs. In
accordance with the 2023 CWPP,
promote public education and
outreach to engage citizens in
helping to reduce risk around
individual property, particularly in
areas with larger drive times from
fire response. Utilize Fire Safe
Councils free chipping programs,
teach Firewise landscaping
techniques, and organize
community cleanup and green
waste removal in high risk areas to
reduce ignitability.

Wildfire Santa Clara County
Fire Department
SCCFD
General
Budget;
County OEM
General
Budget;
South
County Fire
General
Budget;
HMGP; and
EMPG
Ongoing Low
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 415
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC-8* Develop, update, and maintain GIS
inventories of essential facilities, atrisk buildings and infrastructure and prioritize mitigation projects. Ideas
for Implementation: • Identify critical
facilities at risk from natural hazards
events. • Develop strategies to
mitigate risk to these facilities, or to
utilize alternative facilities should
natural hazard events cause
damage to the facilities in question.
• Identify bridges at risk from flood
or earthquake hazards.

All Hazards, Flood,
Earthquake, Wildfire
ISD (GIS) County ISD
Budget,
County
OEM
Budget,
Emergency
Management
Performance
Grant
Program,
HMGP;
PDM;
FMA; EMPG
Longterm/Ongoing
Medium
SCC-9* Maintain the WebEOC system so
that it is up to date. For example,
review the WebEOC vendor's Road
Map, assess the vendor
technology's fitness relative to the
needs of the County's situational
awareness process and IT
infrastructure; consider upgrading
to a new system if necessary.

All Hazards, Wildfire,
Flood, Inclement
Weather – Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River, Inclement Weather
– High Winds
ISD (GIS) County ISD
Budget,
County
OEM
Budget,
Emergency
Management
Performance
Grant
Program,
HMGP;
PDM;
FMA; EMPG
Short-term Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 416
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC10*Participate in statewide effort to
collaborate on spatial data
standardization, data sharing
platform, common operating
procedures.

All Hazards, Earthquake,
Wildfire/Wildfire
Smoke/Air Quality,
Inclement Weather –
Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River/Extreme
Temperatures/High
Winds/Space Weather,
Drought, Climate
Change, Dam/Levee
Failure, Flood,
Landslide/Mass
Movement
TSS (GIS) County ISD
Budget,
County
OEM
Budget,
Emergency
Management
Performance
Grant
Program,
HMGP;
PDM;
FMA; EMPG
Ongoing Medium
SCC11*Develop and provide the Indoor
Mapping, Evacuation Routing to
Emergency Response Personnel.

All Hazards, Wildfire TSS (GIS) County ISD
Budget,
Emergency
Management
Performance
Grant
Program,
HMGP;
PDM; FMA;
EMPG
Long-term Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 417
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC13A*Identify county facilities vulnerable
to earthquakes and develop
appropriate actions.

Identify county facilities vulnerable
to earthquakes (may include
building age, soft story structures,
building materials more vulnerable
to earthquake damage). Consider
options to retrofit, relocate or
consider alternate methods to
minimize earthquake damage and
maintain response functionality.

Earthquakes ISD (GIS) County ISD
Budget Fleet
and Facilities
Budget
Emergency
Management
Program,
HMGP;
PDM; FMA;
EMGP
Long-term Medium
SCC13B*Identify the most seismically
vulnerable bridges on county roads.

Establish priorities for repair,
retrofit, or other efforts to harden
bridges against earthquake damage
to maintain transportation
functionality and facilitate
emergency response.

Earthquakes ISD (GIS) County ISD
Budget Fleet
and Facilities
Budget
Emergency
Management
Program,
HMGP;
PDM; FMA;
EMGP
Long-term Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 418
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC15*Deploy plume modeling software
and enable OEM staff to manage
data input to assess hazardous
materials atmospheric risk. Due to
the COVID-19 global pandemic
there has been no progress on this
ongoing capability.

All Hazards, Wildfire,
Climate Change,
Inclement Weather –
High Wind
County Fire, Consumer
and Environmental
Protection Agency
(Department of
Environmental Health)
County ISD
Budget,
County
OEM
Budget;
County
Public
Health
Budget;
SCCFD;
EMPG; the
State
Homeland
Security
Grant
Program
Long-term Medium
SCC18*Miguelito Road Repairs for two road
sections (located in east side of
San Jose): Section 1, located near
the intersection of Camino Vista
Way and Miguelito Road, would
replace the current soldier pile wall
with a new retaining wall and
repave the roadway. Section 2,
located near the intersection of Rica
Vista Way and Miguelito Road,
would repair the slope failure.

All Hazards, Landslide Roads and Airports County
Roads and
Airports
Budget;
County OEM
Budget;
HMGP;
PDM; FMA
Long-term Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 419
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC21*Alma Bridge Road Slide Repair
(located in Los Gatos): Project site
is 0.75 mile south of the Los Gatos
Rowing Club @ Lexington
Reservoir
Dam Failure,
Landslide
Roads and Airports County
Roads and
Airports
Budget;
County OEM
Budget;
HMGP;
PDM; FMA
Long-term Medium
SCC23*Review and implement selected
recommendations detailed in the
Loma Fire Watershed Emergency
Response Team Final Report,
October 25, 2016 (CA-SCU006912). Potential actions may include, but are not limited to
deployment of an early warning
system, infrastructure
improvements, establishment of a
Firewise community program,
waterway clearance, general
watershed restoration, etc.

Wildfire County OEM County
Roads and
Airports
Budget;
County OEM
Budget;
HMGP;
PDM; FMA
Long-Term Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 420
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC24*Review critical facilities and capital
projects for mitigation project
potential- including, but not limited
to: water drainage, power
production maintenance/ upgrades,
etc.

Review flood risk assessment of
critical facilities at risk to 100 and
500 year flood. Initiate further study
to determine appropriate methods
to reduce flood risk, which might
include stormwater capture or
drainage, use of permeable
surfaces, changes to landscaping,
flood control structures, relocation,
or alternatives.

All Hazards
Flood
Fleet and Facilities County
Roads and
Airports
Budget,
County OEM
Budget,
County Fleet
and Facilities
Budget,
County
Roads and
Airports
Budget,
County
Planning &
Development
Budget;
HMGP;
PDM; FMA;
EMPG; the
State
Homeland
Security
Grant
Program
Short-term Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 421
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC25*Provide technical information and
guidance to public on individual risk
identification using information
sharing/ GIS platforms.

Use GIS tools such as StoryMaps
or other GIS platforms or web
applications for public education
and outreach. Provide a method for
residents to understand where they
are in relation to potential hazards,
and educate them on what actions
they can take to reduce their
personal risk.

All Hazards, Wildfire,
Drought, Climate
Change, Flood
ISD (GIS) County ISD
Budget,
County OEM
Budget,
SCCFD;
EMPG; the
State
Homeland
Security
Grant
Program
Short-term High
SCC26*Develop strategy to take advantage
of post disaster opportunities
through the development of
Disaster Recovery Planning,
Disaster Cost Recovery Planning,
etc.

All Hazards, Earthquake,
Wildfire/Wildfire
Smoke/Air Quality,
Inclement Weather –
Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River/Extreme
Temperatures/High
Winds/Space Weather,
Drought, Climate
Change, Dam/Levee
Failure, Flood,
Landslide/Mass
Movement
County OEM County OEM
Budget;
SCCFD;
County
Finance
Agency
Budget;
EMPG; the
State
Homeland
Security
Grant
Program;
HMGP
Long-term Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 422
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC27*Develop and adopt a COOP for
County Departments, as
appropriate.

All Hazards, Earthquake,
Wildfire/Wildfire
Smoke/Air Quality,
Inclement Weather –
Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River/Extreme
Temperatures/High
Winds/Space Weather,
Drought, Climate
Change, Dam/Levee
Failure, Flood,
Landslide/Mass
Movement
County OEM County OEM
Budget;
SCCFD;
County ISD;
EMPG; the
State
Homeland
Security
Grant
Program;
HMGP
Short-Term Medium
SCC28*Maintain existing data and gather
new data needed to define risks
and vulnerabilities impacting the
County. New data should be
integrated into County policies,
including but not limited to
stormwater management, postdisaster recovery, real estate disclosures, environmental
protection, climate change, fire
suppression, and seismic activity.

All Hazards, Climate
Change, Wildfire,
Earthquake
County OEM County OEM
Budget;
SCCFD;
County ISD;
EMPG; the
State
Homeland
Security
Grant
Program;
HMGP
Ongoing Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 423
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC29*Maintain existing data and gather
new data needed to define risks
and vulnerability impacting the
County. New data should be
integrated into County plans,
including but not limited to the
County's General Plan, Capital
Improvement Plan, Stormwater
Plan, Habitat Conservation Plan,
Community Wildfire Protection
Plan, Forest Management Plan,
Climate Action Plan, Emergency
Operations Plan, Threat & Hazard
Identification & Risk Assessment,
Post-Disaster Recovery
Framework, Continuity of
Operations Plan, and Public Health
plans.

All Hazards, Earthquake,
Wildfire/Wildfire
Smoke/Air Quality,
Inclement Weather –
Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River/Extreme
Temperatures/High
Winds/Space Weather,
Drought, Climate
Change, Dam/Levee
Failure, Flood,
Landslide/Mass
Movement
County OEM County OEM
Budget;
SCCFD;
County ISD;
EMPG; the
State
Homeland
Security
Grant
Program;
HMGP;
BRIC
Ongoing Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 424
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC30*Develop a Debris Collection and
Management Plan.

Earthquake, Wildfire,
Inclement Weather –
Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River/ /High Winds,
Dam/Levee Failure,
Flood, Landslide/Mass
Movement
County Roads and
Airports
County OEM
Budget;
SCCFD;
County ISD;
County
Roads &
Airports
Budget;
County
Public Health
Budget;
EMPG; the
State
Homeland
Security
Grant
Program;
EMPG
Short-term High
SCC32*Integrate the hazard mitigation plan
into other plans, ordinances, and
programs that dictate land use
decisions within the community.

All Hazards, Earthquake,
Wildfire/Wildfire
Smoke/Air Quality,
Inclement Weather –
Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River/Extreme
Temperatures/High
Winds/Space Weather,
Drought, Climate
Change, Dam/Levee
Failure, Flood,
Landslide/Mass
Movement
County OEM County OEM
Budget,
SCCFD
Budget,
County
Planning &
Development
Budget
Ongoing Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 425
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC33*Development and implement a
program to capture perishable data
significant events (e.g. high water
marks, locations of poor draining
following heavy rain, roadways or
culverts that have been damaged in
flood events, damage from high
wind events, preliminary damage
estimates, damage photos) to
support future mitigation efforts
including the implementation and
maintenance of the hazard
mitigation plan.

All Hazards, Earthquake,
Wildfire/Wildfire
Smoke/Air Quality,
Inclement Weather –
Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River/Extreme
Temperatures/High
Winds/Space Weather,
Drought, Climate
Change, Dam/Levee
Failure, Flood,
Landslide/Mass
Movement
County OEM County OEM
Budget,
SCCFD
Budget,
County

ISD/GIS
Budget,
County
Finance
Agency
Budget
Long-term Medium
SCC34*Actively participate in the plan
maintenance protocols outlined in
Volume 1 of the hazard mitigation
plan.

All Hazards, Earthquake,
Wildfire/Wildfire
Smoke/Air Quality,
Inclement Weather –
Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River/Extreme
Temperatures/High
Winds/Space Weather,
Drought, Climate
Change, Dam/Levee
Failure, Flood,
Landslide/Mass
Movement
County OEM County OEM
Budget,
HMGP,
BRIC
Ongoing Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 426
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
SCC35*Coordinate with the private sector
on prioritization of critical facilities
before and during restoration of
utility services.

All Hazards, Earthquake,
Wildfire/Wildfire
Smoke/Air Quality,
Inclement Weather –
Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River/Extreme
Temperatures/High
Winds/Space Weather,
Drought, Climate
Change, Dam/Levee
Failure, Flood,
Landslide/Mass
Movement
County OEM County OEM
Budget
Ongoing Medium
1 Address gaps in data and missing
information within this Annex for the
next plan update.

All Hazards, Earthquake,
Wildfire/Wildfire
Smoke/Air Quality,
Inclement Weather –
Heavy
Precipitation/Atmospheric
River/Extreme
Temperatures/High
Winds/Space Weather,
Drought, Climate
Change, Dam/Levee
Failure, Flood,
Landslide/Mass
Movement
All Departments General
fund,
Short term Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 427
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
2 Maintain a coordinated, multilingual public awareness campaign to educate and engage the public
about hazard risk, preparedness,
and safety to provide real-time
health related information during
extreme heat and poor air quality
warning days and information on
cooling center, resiliency hubs,
emergency shelters, and other
preparedness and post disaster
resources for the region.

Inclement Weather –
Extreme Temperatures,
Wildfire/Wildfire
Smoke/Air Quality
County OEM General fund Ongoing Medium
3 Consider nature-based solutions
such as a goal to plant 1,000 trees
annually Countywide in areas to
address issues such as urban heat
islands, low tree canopy, poor air
quality and stormwater
management. Work with local
governments, agencies, and
nonprofit partners to build a
comprehensive urban forest.

Inclement Weather –
Extreme Temperatures,
Flood
Office of Sustainability General
fund, BRIC
Medium-term Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 428
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
4 In coordination with SCVWD, host
regular workshops and classes on
water conservation, including
providing information on droughttolerant landscaping, available rebates for water retrofits, and
water efficiency strategies in new
buildings. Distribute outreach
materials for water conservation.

Drought County OEM? General
Fund
Medium-term Medium
5 Work with local jurisdictions in dam
inundation zones to ensure
residents and businesses are
aware of the potential risk, and that
dam inundation mitigation
strategies are integrated into local
planning efforts. Work with local
jurisdictions to identify vulnerable
populations and unique information
needs to communicate their risk.

Use GIS mapping for risk analysis
and communication as appropriate.

Dam/Levee Failure County OEM General
Fund
Medium
Term
Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 429
Action
Item
Number
Action Item Description Hazard(s) Mitigated
Lead Position, Office,
Department, or
Division Responsible
for Implementation
Potential
Funding
Sources
Expected
Timeline for
Completion
Priority
6 Identify facilities to serve as
warming or cooling centers/shortterm severe weather shelters in an effort to reduce loss of life. Assist
vulnerable populations by
facilitating and also notifying them
about warming centers (a shortterm emergency shelter that operates when temperatures or a
combination of precipitation, wind
chill, wind and temperature become
dangerously inclement).

Extreme Heat, Extreme
Cold, High Wind, Heavy
Rain
County OEM General
Fund
Medium
Term
Medium
7 Identify areas with above ground
utilities at risk to damage from high
wind and evaluate feasibility of
pursuing funding for
undergrounding of utilities.

Consider areas where powerlines
may be near areas with high wildfire
risk.

High Wind, Wildfire County OEM General
Fund
Medium
Term
Medium
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 430

17.4 Financial Capabilities
Determining current and/or potential funding sources is an important step of the mitigation planning process. By exploring, identifying, and evaluating alternative sources now, planning partners are positioned to select and implement actions which are financially obtainable.

This plan is written in accordance with federal guidelines in order to ensure participants remain eligible for certain mitigation funds. Under the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 44, Part 201.6 (44 CFR §201.6), Local Mitigation Plans, local governments must have a Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)-approved plan in order to apply for and/or receive hazard mitigation project grant funds for hazard mitigation programs including:
 Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP)
 HMGP Post Fire Program (HMGP-PF)
 Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities (BRIC)  Flood Mitigation Assistance (FMA)
 Safeguarding Tomorrow Revolving Loan Fund Program
It is important to consider a variety of funding streams. Mitigation actions can and should be funded through multiple different avenues. Funding opportunities may include federal agencies; state, local, and tribal programs, as applicable; or private funding. Potential Federal, State, and Local funding opportunities are described below.

17.4.1 Federal
FEMA’s Hazard Mitigation Assistance (HMA) grants fund eligible mitigation measures to reduce future disaster losses. Eligible applicants include state agencies, local governments, special districts, federally recognized tribes, and private non-profit organizations.

California’s Office of Emergency Services (Cal OES) administers hazard mitigation assistance grants on behalf of FEMA. Cal OES supports outreach to inform eligible jurisdictions of available grants, reviews applications, and provides technical assistance. Cal OES is also responsible for submitting applications to FEMA by FEMA’s stated deadline. When eligible entities are interested in applying for these funds, the State Hazard Mitigation Officer (SHMO) can provide additional guidance and education about available grants and the grant application process.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 431
Table 136: FEMA Mitigation Funding Sources
Program Timeframe Description Lead Agency
or Agencies Resource(s)
Hazard Mitigation
Grant Program
(HMGP / 404
Mitigation)
Post-disaster -
application period
opens on the date of
the presidential
declaration.

Provides funding to state, local, tribal,
and territorial governments to develop
hazard mitigation plans and implement
mitigation products to reduce or
eliminate future disaster losses. Eligible
project types including planning and
enforcement, flood protection,
retrofitting, and construction. An
approved hazard mitigation plan is
required to receive funding. Because
the State of California has an enhanced
HMP, the State is eligible for additional
HMGP funds, up to 20% of the federal
share of disaster assistance provided
after a federally declared disaster.

FEMA https://www.fema.gov/grants/mitigation
/hazard-mitigation
https://www.fema.gov/grants/mitigation
/hazard-mitigation-assistance-guidance
HMGP Post Fire
(HMGP-PF)
State’s first FMAG
declaration of the fiscal
year to 6 months after
the end of that fiscal
year
Helps communities implement hazard
mitigation measures after wildfires
disasters. Funding depends on the 10-
year national average assistance
provided under Fire Management
Assistance Grants (FMAG)
declarations for States.

FEMA https://www.fema.gov/grants/mitigation
/hazard-mitigation-assistance-guidance
https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files
/2020-07/fema_DRRA-1204-policy.pdf
Fire Management
Assistance
Grants (FMAG)
Post-Fire Management
Assistance Declaration
Available to states, local and tribal
governments for the mitigation,
management, and control of fires on
publicly or privately owned forests or
grasslands.

FEMA https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files
/documents/fema_fmagppg_063121.pd
f
Public Assistance
406 Program
Post-federal disaster
declaration
Public Assistance funded mitigation
measures for disaster-damaged
facilities. Limited to eligible counties
and eligible damaged facilities, as well
FEMA https://www.fema.gov/pressrelease/20220328/fema-hazardmitigation-grants-404-and-406 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 432
Program Timeframe Description Lead Agency
or Agencies Resource(s)
as only the parts of the facility that are
damaged. Designed to reduce the
potential of future losses through a
similar disaster to the same eligible
facility.

Flood Mitigation
Assistance (FMA)
Annual Funding for cost-effective measures to
reduce or eliminate the long-term risk
of flood damage to buildings,
manufactured homes, and other
structures insured under the National
Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).

FEMA https://www.fema.gov/grants/mitigation
/floods
Building Resilient
Infrastructure and
Communities
(BRIC)
Annual Provides funding to states, local
communities, tribes, and territories to
implement mitigation projects. This
program is designed to support
capability- and capacity-building,
promote partnerships, and enable large
projects. It emphasizes nature-based
solutions, community lifelines, and
benefitting underserved communities.

Each State has allocated funds as well
as a nationally competitive fund.

FEMA https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files
/documents/fema_bric-policy-fp-008-
05_program_policy.pdf
https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files
/documents/fema_riskmap-naturebased-solutions-guide_2021.pdf https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files
/documents/fema_fy-22-mitigationaction-portfolio.pdf
Pre-Disaster
Mitigation (PDM)
Congressionally
appropriated
Makes funding available for state, local,
tribal, and territorial governments to
plan for and implement sustainable
cost-effective measures designed to
reduce the risk to individuals and
property from future natural hazards.

Previously replaced by the BRIC
program, the Consolidated
Appropriations Act of 2022
reauthorized PDM for FY22.

FEMA https://www.fema.gov/grants/mitigation
/pre-disaster
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 433
Program Timeframe Description Lead Agency
or Agencies Resource(s)
Rehabilitation of
High Hazard
Potential Dam
(HHPD) Grant
Program
Annual Provides technical, planning, design,
and construction assistance in the form
of grants for rehabilitation of eligible
high hazard potential dams. The dam
must be located in a jurisdiction with a
FEMA-approved plan that includes dam
risks.

FEMA https://www.fema.gov/emergencymanagers/risk-management/damsafety/rehabilitation-high-hazardpotential-dams https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files
/documents/fema_hhpd-fact-sheet_05-
19-2020.pdf
National Flood
Insurance
Program (NFIP)
Ongoing Eligible property owners, renters and
businesses who purchase flood
insurance through the NFIP may be
eligible for funds to repair their
property. Increased Cost of
Compliance (ICC) claim benefits may
be available for compliance activities
including elevation, flood-proofing,
relocation, and demolition.

FEMA https://www.fema.gov/flood-insurance
Planning partners may soon have access to additional mitigation funds through FEMA’s new Safeguarding Tomorrow Revolving Loan Fund Program. The Safeguarding Tomorrow through Ongoing Risk Mitigation (STORM) Act became law on January 1, 2021, and authorized FEMA to provide grants to eligible entities including the State of California for the development of a revolving loan fund for hazard mitigation initiatives.

Once established, this revolving loan fund will provide low interest loans to jurisdictions to reduce vulnerability to natural disaster, foster resilience, and reduce disaster suffering. These loans may be used as the non-federal cost match for other HMA grant applications. The first application for STORM is currently open as of the time of this writing.

FEMA funds should not be the only source of mitigation funding a community considers. Other federal resources are described in Table 137.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 434
Table 137: Additional Federal Funding Sources
Program Timeframe Description Lead Agency
or Agencies Resource(s)
Community Development
Block Grant – Disaster
Recovery (CDBG-DR)
Congressionally
Appropriated
Grants to states and local governments to
develop viable communities (e.g., housing,
suitable living environment, expanded economic
opportunities) and recover from federally
declared disasters. Principally for low- and
moderate-income areas.

U.S.

Department of
Housing and
Urban
Development
(HUD)
https://www.hud.gov/progr
am_offices/comm_plannin
g/cdbg
CDBG-Mitigation (CDBGMIT)Congressionally
Appropriated
Supports a range of mitigation activities focused
on reducing or eliminating the long-term impacts
of future disasters.

HUD https://www.hud.gov/progr
am_offices/comm_plannin
g/cdbg-dr/cdbg-mit
Section 108 Loan
Guarantee Program
Upon request Provides low-cost, long-term financing for economic development and community
development projects, including improvements
to increase resilience.

HUD https://www.hudexchange.
info/programs/section108/section-108-programeligibilityrequirements/#overview Natural Resources
Conversation Services
(NRCS)
Ongoing Can provide funding and technical assistance to communities to address threats to watersheds,
including conducting damage assessment and
evaluating potential solutions.

U.S.

Department of
Agriculture
(USDA)
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov
/
Urban Waters Small
Grants Program
Every two years Program that protects and restores urban waters by improving water quality through
activities that also support community
revitalization and other local priorities.

U.S.

Environmental
Protection
Agency (EPA)
https://www.epa.gov/urban
waterspartners/urbanwaters-smallgrants#:~:text=Overview% 20Since%20the%20incept
ion%20of%20the%20Urba
n%20Waters,with%20indiv
idual%20award%20amou
nts%20of%20up%20to%2
0%2460%2C000.
https://www.epa.gov/sites/
default/files/2016-
10/documents/uwsg_flyer
_october2016.pdf
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 435
Program Timeframe Description Lead Agency
or Agencies Resource(s)
Clean Water State
Revolving Fund (CWSRF)
Annual Provides low-cost financing for a range of water infrastructure projects.

EPA https://www.epa.gov/cwsrf
https://www.epa.gov/nps/f
unding-resourceswatershed-protection-andrestoration
WaterSmart Annual Funding opportunity to support adequate and safe water supplies through water conservation,
water management, and restoration projects.

Bureau of
Reclamation
https://www.usbr.gov/wate
rsmart/
Partners for Fish and
Wildlife
Ongoing Financial and technical assistance to private
landowners, corporations, local governments,
and universities interested in pursuing
restoration projects affecting wetlands and
riparian habitats.

U.S. Fish and
Wildlife
Service (FWS)
https://www.fws.gov/progr
am/partners-fish-andwildlife
National Coastal
Resilience Fund
Annual Funds nature-based solutions designed to
improve the resilience of coastal communities
and ecosystems.

National Fish
and Wildlife
Foundation
https://www.nfwf.org/progr
ams/national-coastalresiliencefund?activeTab=tab-1
Flood Risk Management
Program (FRMP)
Upon request Program designed to focus the policies,
programs, and expertise of the Corps toward
reducing overall flood risk. USACE works with
local government partners to coordinate flood
risk management within the context of shared
responsibility, including helping communities
understand their flood risk, communicate flood
risk to the public, and develop solutions.

U.S. Army
Corps of
Engineers
https://www.iwr.usace.arm
y.mil/Missions/Flood-RiskManagement/Flood-RiskManagementProgram/Partners-inSharedResponsibility/State-andLocal/ Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 436
Program Timeframe Description Lead Agency
or Agencies Resource(s)
Community Wildfire
Assistance
Ongoing Technical and funding assistance for wildfire
mitigation measures and training.

Department of
Interior Bureau
of Land
Management
https://www.blm.gov/sitepage/programs-publicsafety-and-fire-fire-andaviation-regionalinformation-montanadakotas-3 Emergency Management
Performance Grant
(EMPG)
Annual Grant designed to support state, local, tribal,
and territorial emergency management
agencies in the implementation of the National
Preparedness System and the National
Preparedness Goal of a secure and resilient
nation. FY23 EMPG program also included an
emphasis on the national priorities of equity;
climate resilience; and readiness.

DHS/FEMA https://www.fema.gov/gran
ts/preparedness/emergen
cy-managementperformance
Emergency Watershed
Protection
Ongoing Program that offers technical and financial
assistance to help local communities relieve
imminent threats to life and property caused by
natural disasters that impair the watershed.

USDA https://www.nrcs.usda.gov
/programs-initiatives/ewpemergency-watershedprotection Watershed and Flood
Prevention Operations
(WVFPO) Program
Ongoing Provides technical and financial assistance to
help plan and implement watershed projects.

USDA https://www.nrcs.usda.gov
/programsinitiatives/watershed-andflood-preventionoperations-wfpoprogram#:~:text=The%20 Watershed%20Protection
%20and%20Flood%20Pre
vention%20%28WFPO%2
9%20Program,Watershed
%20and%20Flood%20Pre
vention%20Operations%2
0%28WFPO%29%20Prog
ram%20OVERVIEW
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 437

17.4.2 State
The State of California proactively invests in hazard mitigation and climate adaptation in order to develop more resilient communities. Open grants can be found online through the California Grants Portal. Table 138 lists some of the state-led funding sources available or likely to become available.

Table 138: State Mitigation Funding Sources
Program Timeframe Description Lead Agency
or Agencies Resource(s)
Prepare California As Funded Initiative to advance local capabilities through funding additional staff and covering the nonfederal cost share for mitigation actions.

Cal OES https://www.caloes.ca.gov/
office-of-thedirector/operations/recove
ry-directorate/hazardmitigation/preparecalifornia/
Earthquake Brace + Bolt
(EBB) Program
TBD Grants for qualified homeowners with eligible
houses in higher-earthquake-risk areas to
seismically retrofit their house.

California
Earthquake
Authority
https://portal.earthquakea
uthority.com/DiscountsGrants/Brace-and-BoltGrants#:~:text=CEA%20of fers%20two%20brace%20
%2B%20bolt%20grant%2
0programs,help%20CEA
%20policyholders%20pay
%20for%20a%20seismic
%20retrofit.

Proposition 84 Ongoing The California Safe Drinking Water, Water Quality and Supply, Flood Control, River and Coastal
Protection Bond Act (Proposition) makes new
funding available for flood protection and water
management programs.

Multiple http://bondaccountability.r
esources.ca.gov/p84.aspx
http://bondaccountability.r
esources.ca.gov/PDF/Pro
p1E/PROPOSITION_84_f
act.pdf
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 438
Program Timeframe Description Lead Agency
or Agencies Resource(s)
Integrated Regional Water
Management Grant
Program
Ongoing A collaborative grant program that covers
planning, project implementation, and
disadvantaged communities and tribes in order to
implement water management solutions on a
regional scale.

Department of
Water
Resources
https://water.ca.gov/Progr
ams/Integrated-RegionalWater-Management
Urban Community
Drought Relief Funding
As Funded Offers financial assistance to address drought impacts, including drought resilience planning,
climate resilience activities, and water
conservation activities.

Department of
Water
Resources
https://water.ca.gov/Water
-Basics/Drought/UrbanDrought-Grant
https://water.ca.gov/-
/media/DWRWebsite/WebPages/WaterBasics/Drought/Files/Urba n-Community-DroughtRelief/FrequentlyAskedQu
estions.pdf
Wildfire Prevention Grants Annual Funding for eligible applicants to conduct hazardous fuels reduction activities, wildfire
prevention planning, and wildfire prevention
education.

CAL FIRE https://www.fire.ca.gov/wh
at-we-do/grants/wildfireprevention-grants
Wildfire Resilience Block
Grants
As Funded Provides technical and financial assistance for forest management including reducing the risk of
wildfires.

CAL FIRE https://www.fire.ca.gov/wh
at-we-do/natural-resourcemanagement/wildfireresilience#ResilienceGran tAnchor
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 439
Program Timeframe Description Lead Agency
or Agencies Resource(s)
Listos California Funded for
2023
Local resilience grants for community-based
organizations throughout the state to provide
disaster training and resources to vulnerable and
diverse populations.

Cal OES https://www.grants.ca.gov/
grants/2022-23-listoscalifornia-statewide-grantls-program-rfp/ https://news.caloes.ca.gov
/cal-oes-released-2023-
funding-opportunities-forlistos-california-campaign/
California Climate
Investments
Ongoing Over 70 programs that fund various projects
related to climate change and climate resilience.

More than 20
state agencies
https://www.caclimateinve
stments.ca.gov/allprograms
Resilient California Ongoing Resources for climate resilience including grant programs.

Governor’s
Office of
Planning and
Research
https://resilientca.org/topic
s/investing-in-adaptation/
Integrated Climate
Adaptation and Resiliency
Program (ICARP)
Ongoing Three grant programs designed to support
mitigation and climate adaptation through
adaptation planning, climate resilience efforts, and
preparing for the impacts of extreme heat.

Governor’s
Office of
Planning and
Research
https://opr.ca.gov/climate/i
carp/
Climate Smart Land
Management Program
Funded for
2023
New grant opportunity to implement projects and
develop plans that increase climate action on
California’s natural and working lands
Department of
Conservation
https://www.conservation.
ca.gov/dlrp/grantprograms/Pages/ClimateSmart-Land-ManagementProgram.aspx Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 440

17.4.3 Local
Local capability to fund mitigation actions can come from a variety of sources. Some sources local jurisdictions may have access to include:
 Capital improvements project funding.
 Taxes levied for specific purposes.
 User fees for water, sewer, gas, or electric services.  Stormwater utility fees.
 General obligation bonds.
 Special tax bonds.
 Private activity bonds.
 Development impact fees for homebuyers or developers.  Public or private partnerships.

The individual resources of each participating planning partner are discussed in each annex in Volume 2.

17.5 Action Plan Prioritization
The planning partners utilized the following criteria to prioritize action items into the categories of high, medium, or low.
 High Priority— A project that:
▪ Meets multiple goals and objectives (i.e., multiple hazards); ▪ Addresses multiple hazards;
▪ Has benefits that exceed cost;
▪ Has funding secured or is an ongoing project;
▪ Meets eligibility requirements for Hazard Mitigation Assistance grants; ▪ Can be completed in the short term (1 to 5 years);
▪ Addresses immediate short-term impacts of climate change; ▪ Benefits underserved and/or socially vulnerable populations; AND ▪ Considers the Multi-Benefit Criteria utilized by the Santa Clara County Climate Collaborative, including equity, long-term value, ecosystem benefit, community benefit, and crossjurisdictional alignment.  Medium Priority— A project that:
▪ Meets multiple goals and objectives;
▪ Addresses multiple hazards;
▪ Has benefits that exceed costs;
▪ Has funding has not been secured, but that is grant eligible under Hazard Mitigation Assistance grants or other grant programs;
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 441
▪ Project can be completed in the short term (1-5 years), once funding is secured. Medium priority projects will become high priority projects once funding is secured; ▪ Addresses immediate short-term impacts of climate change; ▪ Benefits underserved and/or socially vulnerable populations; AND ▪ Considers the Multi-Benefit Criteria utilized by the Santa Clara County Climate Collaborative, including equity, long-term value, ecosystem benefit, community benefit, and crossjurisdictional alignment.  Low Priority— A project that:
▪ Will mitigate the risk of at least one hazard;
▪ Has benefits that do not exceed the costs or are difficult to quantify:
▪ Does not have secured funding;
▪ Is not eligible for Hazard Mitigation Assistance grant funding; ▪ Has a timeline for completion that is long term (greater than 5 years). Low priority projects may be eligible for other sources of grant funding from other programs; ▪ May address impacts of climate change;
▪ May benefit underserved and/or socially vulnerable populations; AND ▪ Considers the Multi-Benefit Criteria utilized by the Santa Clara County Climate Collaborative, including equity, long-term value, ecosystem benefit, community benefit, and crossjurisdictional alignment.

17.5.1 Benefit-Cost Review
One of the criteria used to prioritize proposed mitigation actions was a benefit-cost review. This review was not of the detailed benefit-cost analysis required by FEMA for project grant eligibility under Hazard Mitigation Assistance grants. A less formal approach was used because some projects may not be implemented for up to 10 years, and associated costs and benefits could change dramatically in that time.

Therefore, a review of the apparent benefits versus the apparent cost of each project was performed.

Parameters were established for assigning subjective ratings (high, medium, and low) to the costs and benefits of these projects.

Cost ratings were defined as follows:
 High—Existing funding will not cover the cost of the project; implementation would require new revenue through an alternative source (for example, bonds, grants, and fee increases).  Medium—The project could be implemented with existing funding but would require a reapportionment of the budget or a budget amendment, or the cost of the project would have to be spread over multiple years.
 Low—The project could be funded under the existing budget. The project is part of or can be part of an ongoing existing program.

Benefit ratings were defined as follows:
 High—Project will provide an immediate reduction of risk exposure for life and property.  Medium—Project will have a long-term impact on the reduction of risk exposure for life and property, or project will provide an immediate reduction in the risk exposure for property.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 442
 Low—Long-term benefits of the project are difficult to quantify in the short term.

Using this approach, projects with positive benefit versus cost ratios (such as high over high, high over medium, medium over low, etc.) are considered cost-beneficial and are prioritized accordingly.

For many of the strategies identified in this action plan, financial assistance may be available through FEMA Hazard Mitigation Assistance grants, all of which require detailed benefit/cost analyses. These analyses will be performed on projects at the time of application using the FEMA benefit-cost model. For projects not seeking financial assistance from grant programs that require detailed analysis, “benefits” can be defined according to parameters that meet the goals and objectives of this plan.

17.6 Plan Adoption
A hazard mitigation plan must document that it has been formally adopted by the governing bodies of the jurisdictions requesting federal approval of the plan (44 CFR Section 201.6(c)(5)). For multi-jurisdictional plans, each jurisdiction requesting approval must document that is has been formally adopted. Once the MJHMP has received FEMA Approvable Pending Adoption (APA) status, each participating jurisdiction or special district will take the plan to their governing body for final public comment and adoption. Copies of the resolutions adopting this plan for all planning partners can be found in Appendix B of this volume.

17.7 Plan Maintenance Strategy
A hazard mitigation plan must present a plan maintenance process that includes the following (44 CFR Section 201.6(c)(4)):
 A section describing the method and schedule of monitoring, evaluating, and updating the mitigation plan over a 5-year cycle (44 CFR Section 201.6(c)(4)(i)).  A process by which local governments incorporate the requirements of the mitigation plan into other planning mechanisms, such as comprehensive or capital improvement plans, when appropriate (44 CFR Section 201.6(c)(4)(ii)).
 A discussion on how the community will continue public participation in the plan maintenance process (44 CFR Section 201.6(c)(4)(iii)).

This section details the formal process that will ensure that the hazard mitigation plan remains an active and relevant document and that the planning partners maintain their eligibility for applicable funding sources. The plan maintenance process includes a schedule for monitoring and evaluating the plan annually and producing an updated plan every five years. This section also describes how public participation will be integrated throughout the plan maintenance and implementation process. It also explains how the mitigation strategies outlined in this plan will be incorporated into existing planning mechanisms and programs, such as comprehensive land-use planning processes, capital improvement planning, and building code enforcement and implementation. The plan’s format allows sections to be reviewed and updated when new data become available, resulting in a plan that will remain current and relevant.

Pursuant to 44CFR 201.6(c)(4)(i), the plan maintenance matrix shown in Table 139 provides a synopsis of responsibilities for plan monitoring, evaluation, and update, which are discussed in further detail in the sections below.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 443
Table 139: Plan Maintenance Matrix
Task Approach Timeline Lead
Responsibility
Support
Responsibility
Monitoring Preparation of status
updates and action
implementation
tracking as part of
submission for Annual
Progress Report.

January to
February, or upon
comprehensive
update to General
Plan or major
disaster
Jurisdictional
points of contact
identified in
Volume 2 annexes
Local Planning
Team Members
identified in
Volume 2 annexes
Evaluation Review the status of
previous actions to
assess the
effectiveness of the
plan
Progress report
completed and
submitted to
MJHMP County
Project Manager
each year
Jurisdictional
points of contact
identified in
Volume 2 annexes
MJHMP County
Project Manager,
as appropriate
Update Reconvene the
planning partners, at a
minimum, every 5
years to guide a
comprehensive
update to review and
revise the plan.

Every 5 years, or
upon
comprehensive
update to General
Plan or major
disaster
MJHMP County
Project Manager
Jurisdictional
points of contacts
identified in
Volume 2 annexes

17.8 Plan Implementation
Each planning partner is responsible for implementing specific mitigation actions as described in the mitigation strategies located in the annexes. In each mitigation strategy, every proposed action is assigned to a specific department or division in order to assign responsibility and accountability and increase the likelihood of subsequent implementation. This approach enables individual participants to update their unique mitigation strategy as needed, without altering the broader focus of the countywide plan. The separate adoption of participant-specific actions also ensures that each plan member is not held responsible for monitoring and implementing the actions of other jurisdictions or special districts involved in the planning process.

The Santa Clara County MJHMP Project Manager is the lead position for plan implementation and will work with the planning partner to ensure mitigation actions are implemented according to jurisdictional or special district capabilities and planning procedures. Each partner will implement the plan and their individual mitigation actions, as resources permit, through existing plans, programs, and policies and in the timeframe appropriate for their planning processes. This implementation will be done by reviewing the MJHMP and mitigation strategy during the update of the planning mechanisms identified.

As necessary, partners may consider seeking outside funding sources to implement mitigation projects in both the pre-disaster and post-disaster environments. When applicable, potential funding sources have been identified for proposed actions listed in the mitigation strategies.

17.9 Plan Maintenance Element
Planning partner points of contact will continue to collaborate as a planning group in coordination with the Santa Clara County MJHMP Project Manager. Primary contact will be through emails and conference calls. Partner points of contact will jointly lead the plan maintenance and update process by:
 Discussing methods for continued public involvement and education; Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 444
 Documenting successes and lessons learned;
 Researching new or updated data, laws, policies, regulations, or initiatives that can contribute to hazard histories, risk assessments, loss estimates, vulnerabilities of assets, or action items for plan participants;
 Reviewing potential funding availability, including state and federal grant program Notices of Funding Opportunities;
 Assessing the progress of previously implemented actions that reduce vulnerability and losses, and any new opportunities for mitigation actions; and
 Maintaining and completing documentation of the MJHMP maintenance process.

Each planning partner is responsible for monitoring and tracking the progress of action items identified by their jurisdiction or special district in this MJHMP and submitting a status summary to the County’s project manager on a yearly basis.

Additionally, each planning partner point of contact will work with their Local Planning Teams and other jurisdictional or special district representatives to:
 Review existing action items to determine appropriateness for local funding;  Prioritize potential mitigation projects; and
 Update decision makers on progress of the plan.

17.9.1 Plan Update
The planning partners intend to update the hazard mitigation plan on a 5-year cycle from the date of initial plan adoption in accordance with the update schedule outlined in the DMA 2000. This cycle may be accelerated to less than 5 years based on the following triggers:
 A Presidential Disaster Declaration that impacts the OA.  A hazard event that causes loss of life.
 A comprehensive update of a planning partner’s general plan.

It will not be the intent of future updates to develop a completely new hazard mitigation plan for the OA.

The update will, at a minimum, include the following elements:
 The update process will be convened through a new planning partner group.  The hazard risk assessment will be reviewed and, if necessary, updated using best available information and technologies.
 The action plans will be reviewed and revised to account for any actions completed, no longer relevant, or changed and to account for changes in the risk assessment or new policies identified under other planning mechanisms.
 The draft update will be sent to appropriate agencies and organizations for comment.  The public will be given an opportunity to comment on the update prior to adoption.  planning partner governing bodies will adopt the updated plan.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 445

17.9.2 Grant Monitoring and Coordination
Santa Clara County OEM intends to be a resource to the planning partnership in the support of project grant writing and development. The degree of this support will depend on the level of assistance requested by the partnership during open windows for grant applications. It is not Santa Clara County OEM’s intent to lead any grant application effort for any specific planning partner requesting assistance. It will be the role of Santa Clara County OEM staff to provide support to a lead jurisdiction by providing or identifying resources for project development, scoping, feasibility, grant writing, environmental/historic preservation application, and benefit/cost analyses. As part of grant monitoring and coordination, Santa Clara County OEM agrees to provide the following:
 Notification to planning partners about impending grant opportunities.  A current list of eligible, jurisdiction-specific projects for funding pursuit consideration.  Notification about mitigation priorities for the fiscal year to assist the planning partners in the selection of appropriate projects.
 Training on the FEMA benefit-cost analysis tool upon request.  Training on the sub-applicant system upon request.
 Grant writing technical assistance upon request.
 Technical review of the completed sub-applicant package upon request.

Grant monitoring and coordination is expected to occur on an annual basis in coordination with the annual progress report or as needed based on the availability of non-HMA or post-disaster funding opportunities.

17.9.3 Continuing Public Involvement
Each planning partner has agreed to provide links to the hazard mitigation plan website on their individual jurisdictional websites to increase avenues of public access to the plan. Santa Clara County OEM has agreed to maintain the hazard mitigation plan website. This site will not only house the final plan, but it will also become the one-stop shop for information regarding the plan, the partnership and plan implementation. The plan will be posted to the Office of Emergency Management’s website, where there will be an opportunity for continued public feedback and engagement with the County mitigation planning team by providing their contact information. To ensure continued public engagement on issues relating to hazard mitigation, all comments received from the public and from interested agencies on this hazard mitigation plan will be reviewed as part of the plan maintenance procedures.

Public participation will be sought throughout the implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of the MJHMP. This participation can be sought in a multitude of ways, including but not limited to periodic presentations on the plan’s progress to elected officials, schools, or other community groups; questionnaires or surveys; public meetings; and postings on social media and participant websites.

Each participant in this plan is responsible for creating and documenting continued public involvement opportunities throughout the life of the MJHMP. The Santa Clara County NHMP Project Manager may facilitate countywide public involvement strategies that include plan participants, such as partnering with the countywide groups and organizations to distribute and disseminate public surveys and information related to mitigation. Copies of the MJHMP and annual revisions will be posted on the websites of plan participants, as appropriate.

The Santa Clara County Multi-Jurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan acts as a foundation plan for the entire County. MJHMP will inform many other planning efforts such as plans relating to infrastructure projects (green or otherwise), the County of Santa Clara Emergency Operations Plan, the County of Santa Clara Disaster Recovery Framework (currently in draft), and the Office of Emergency Management Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 446
Strategic Visioning Plan. Additionally, all other County plans that require a review of hazards and vulnerability will be informed by the MJHMP.

17.9.4 Incorporation into Other Planning Mechanisms
The information on hazard, risk, vulnerability, and mitigation contained in this plan is based on the best science and technology available at the time this plan was prepared. The general plans of the planning partners are considered to be integral parts of this plan. The planning partners, through adoption of general plans and zoning ordinances, have planned for the impact of natural hazards. The plan development process provided them with the opportunity to review and expand on policies contained within these planning mechanisms. The planning partners used their general plans and the hazard mitigation plan as complementary documents that work together to achieve the goal of reducing risk exposure to the citizens of the OA. An update to a general plan may trigger an update to the hazard mitigation plan.

All municipal planning partners are committed to creating a linkage between the hazard mitigation plan and their individual general plan. Additionally, all planning partners are committed to being in full compliance with California Assembly Bill 2140 and Senate Bill 379, which promote the integration of local hazard mitigation plans and general plans and mandate that these plans address climate change. Other planning processes and programs to be coordinated with the recommendations of the hazard mitigation plan include the following:
 Emergency response plans.
 Training and exercise of emergency response plans.
 Debris Management Plans.
 Recovery Plans.
 Capital improvement programs.
 Municipal codes.
 Community design guidelines.
 Water-efficient landscape design guidelines.
 Stormwater management programs.
 Water system vulnerability assessments.
 Community Wildfire Protection Plans.
 Comprehensive Flood Hazard Management Plans.
 Resiliency Plans.
 Community Development Block Grant-Disaster Recovery action plans.  Public information/Education plans.

Santa Clara County understands the importance of integrating plans in order to align efforts and increase the chances of success. Plan integration, including working closely with the County’s Safety Element update team and the countywide Community Wildfire Protection Plan team, has been a key element of this plan update. In addition to collaborating with these plan updates to integrate public feedback and wildfire risk data, the County will integrate this plan into other planning mechanisms as well. The MJMHP acts as a foundation plan for the entire County. It will inform many other planning efforts such as plans relating to infrastructure projects (green infrastructure or otherwise), the County of Santa Clara Emergency Operations Plan, the County of Santa Clara Disaster Recovery Framework (currently in draft), Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Section 17: Mitigation Strategy 447
and the Office of Emergency Management Strategic Visioning Plan. Additionally, all other County plans that require a review of hazards and vulnerability will be informed by the MJHMP. Including a broad range of internal partners helps ensure the planning partners that participated in this plan update will be able to carry over knowledge of this plan and its actions into other planning mechanisms. Additional information on how each plan participants will integrate this plan into other planning mechanisms is included in Volume II.

Some action items do not need to be implemented through regulation. Instead, these items can be implemented through the creation of new educational programs, continued interagency coordination, or improved public participation. As information becomes available from other planning mechanisms that can enhance this plan, that information will be incorporated via the update process.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-1
Appendix A: Public Engagement Results
Public Survey Results
A 35-question survey was available to the public for seven weeks, from April 4–May 19, 2023. The survey results helped the Planning Team learn how the public viewed their risks and vulnerabilities to the hazards they felt could occur in the OA along with their viewpoint on impacts from climate change.

With this survey, the MJHMP planning process better supported the viewpoints and concerns of the public.

Figure 79: Sample of Public Survey Advertisement
The MJHMP public survey received 588 responses. There were 576 responses to the English survey, ten (10) responses to the Chinese survey, and two (2) responses to the Spanish survey.

The survey asked participants to pick a statement that best described their level of concern for each hazard. These levels of concern include:
• Not Concerned
• Somewhat Concerned
• Very Concerned
• Not Sure – Not Enough Information
The survey results are provided in the following tables.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-2
Table 140: Survey Results Level of Hazard Concern
Hazard Very Concerned Somewhat
Concerned Not Concerned Not Sure/Needs More Information Drought 355 180 45 6
Earthquake 296 245 38 4
Thunderstorms 29 152 268 34
Flood 85 268 200 30
Dam/Levee
Failure
44 160 316 62
Terrorism 67 209 248 58
Tsunami 11 48 456 70
Extreme
Heat/Cold
161 234 170 19
Hazardous
Materials
69 252 218 44
Atmospheric
River
148 264 149 24
Smoke/ Air
Quality
304 193 73 14
Weapons of
Mass
Destruction
73 146 291 74
Wildfire 208 217 138 20
Landslide 54 202 284 43
Tornadoes 11 46 458 69
Windstorms 110 279 172 21
Pandemics 162 275 129 18
Space
Weather/Other
25 90 319 149
Table 141: Level of Concern for Climate Change Impacts
Climate Effect Very
Concerned
Somewhat
Concerned Not Concerned Not Sure/Needs More Information Sea Level Rise 120 260 173 2
Increased Severity of
Hazard Events
227 229 99 0
Hotter Temperatures 285 201 83 1
Damage to the
Environment
310 175 84 1
Human Health Issues 227 247 93 0
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-3
Climate Effect Very
Concerned
Somewhat
Concerned Not Concerned Not Sure/Needs More Information Increased Frequency of
Hazard Events
232 231 92 0
Decreased Water
Resources
392 147 37 2
Damage to Structures Not
Built for Climate Change
232 216 108 1
Harm to Food Production 224 239 97 2
Decreased Outdoor
Worker Productivity
109 264 173 2
Effect on Vulnerable
Populations
245 194 112 1
Table 142: Types of Stakeholders Represented
Group Represented Response (%)
Academia 6.4
Community Based Organizations 15.6
Special District 1.7
Neighboring Community 6.2
Healthcare Agency 2.1
Faith Based Organization 8.3
Private Organization 8.3
Private Utility 0.3
Table 143 lists comments received from the public survey and how this input that was taken into account during the plan update. Comments that didn’t relate to the hazard mitigation plan or were not a suggestion were not included.

Table 143: Public Comments
Public Comment Response
Our traditional methods for planning and
preparation cannot keep pace with the changing
natural hazard landscape. The current planning
cycles are simply too slow.

The Plan Maintenance Strategy in this plan
update emphasizes the need for more
engagement and timely update to information as
appropriate.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-4
Public Comment Response
I like the hazard maps. Nice to know I'm not in a
tsunami zone but was surprised that part of the
Baylands is in a tsunami zone - and yet proposals
to build homes and businesses quite close to the
bay keep coming. We should be building near 280
not near the SF Bay. I was shocked Saltworks on
an average of 1 foot of elevation in Redwood City
was even considered. I think there are big projects
scheduled for Brisbane and some in the East Bay
too. I have not seen any documentation of the
risks of sea rise affecting Facebook or Google or
NASA building very close to the bay. How can we
overcome the lure of building on the cheapest
land when that land is cheaper because of
hazards?
This plan includes additional information on the
Tsunami hazard which was not previously
profiled. This question is too broad for this plan
update to address but reflects a real concern for
the OA.

Please keep the urban forest a priority and please
push back when the state wants us to increase
our population. We do not have the natural water
for it.

Changes in development and planning for
hazards including drought which includes water
shortage is addressed in this plan.

Reduce flood risks and obvious fire risks.

Mitigation of flood risks from San Franciscquito
Creek should be immediately accelerated as
many are at known risk from this; homeowners
and businesses should be educated and
encouraged to reduce dry brush/fire risks,
including trimming dry trees/foliage from growing
up to affect such things as electrical lines. Code
enforcement should be stronger since we all see
dead wood, etc. close to and eventually affecting
power lines. Utilities should be required to
evaluate and remedy these when they pose a risk.

Actions to reduce flood and fire risk are included
in this plan.

More work needs to be done with clearing fallen
trees in creek and streams.

While not strictly speaking mitigation, this is an
ongoing theme of public feedback. Therefore,
multiple jurisdictions have in progress work
towards debris management plans, and others
selected to include actions related to debris.

As a CERT in Los Gatos, we practice responding
to large scale earthquakes. For the community,
not just my property, the risk of wildfire, landslide,
flooding, dam release, gas leaks is has high
probabilities in specific areas. So the survey
should not be confined to an individual’s property
alone. My property is near, but not on,
landslide/flooding/wildfire zones.

This survey was open to all. Individuals who live
near, but not in, high risk areas are welcome to
participate in future hazard mitigation
opportunities as relevant.

There is so little help for disabled people, and
most of it is useless in practice.

Equity in mitigation is an important concept. This
is integrated into the County and its stakeholders
approach to this plan update, and will be
something discussed in the future as well.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-5
Public Comment Response
In Louisiana, parishes have designated hurricane
evacuation routes. These are communicated to
the public and signs are posted along the routes
that say "Hurricane Evacuation Route." Should
Santa Clara County consider publishing
evacuation routes? Maybe it's no longer
necessary since we have Apple Maps. But one
would think the county should optimize the routes
and assign certain routes to certain
neighborhoods to minimize the chaos during
evacuations. For example, in New Orleans, they
convert all Interstate 10 lanes to westbound only
during evacuations to get twice the traffic flow out
of the city. Would something like this ever be
needed here?
Evacuation routes were not profiled as a part of
this plan update. However, other plans currently
be updated including the countywide Community
Wildfire Protection Plan will evaluate the current
evacuation route situation.

People are not well-informed about hazards in
their area and what can be done about it,
Multiple public education and outreach actions
were included as a part of the 2023 action items
listed in this plan in attempt to promote public
awareness of the risks to the OA and what can be
done about it, including mitigation.

I wish there had been a specific mention of softstory earthquake hazards in 2-story apartments built in the 1950s–1970s. There are dozens, if not
hundreds, of these in Mountain View alone. There
doesn't seem to be much progress on addressing
this well-known hazard. I also wish there had
been a way to share my level of concern about
large-scale environmental "tipping points" that
might lead to runaway rises in methane and
carbon dioxide. I am highly concerned about
them!
This is noted as a Jurisdiction-Specific
Vulnerability.

I would like to be involved. Gilroy is not well
represented or serviced in SCCo.

Gilroy was an active participate in this plan update
and because of this, will be eligible for future
mitigation funding opportunities. All are welcome
to participate in future plan maintenance and
implementation initiatives. Further information can
be found on Santa Clara County’s website.

How are you going to prioritize among all of the
issues and needs?
The planning teams prioritized each action in
accordance with the criteria listed in this plan.

Solutions should not be forced on residents,
rather provide them with a variety of options or
alternatives to pick from. Everyone wants the best
for the environment and wants to be safe, but no
one wants to be dictated to on exactly how, OR,
have their options taken away and left with only
one method.

The majority of hazard mitigation actions are
voluntary, not mandatory, initiatives. Multiple
jurisdictions selected additional public education
and outreach actions to take in order to share with
residents their options for conducting hazard
mitigation.

I believe everyone in coastal California should be
required to have earthquake insurance.

This suggestion was considered beyond the
scope of this hazard mitigation plan update.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-6
Public Comment Response
Building new housing needs to have support
infrastructure such as roads so people can
escape their neighborhoods in emergencies and
not be trapped due to traffic.

This suggestion was considered beyond the
scope of this hazard mitigation plan update
however, other current planning initiatives are
evaluating evacuation routes.

I’m concerned about the lack of communication
abilities when the cell phone towers are down.

Power failure was discussed during the planning
meetings as well. A variety of related mitigation
activities were identified in the plan participant’s
lists of mitigation actions.

Traffic hazards, such as the dangerous
southbound 101 entrance from Charleston should
be closed and replaced by one from San Antonio
Road with an auxiliary lane connecting to the offramp at Rengstorff.

Traffic incidents were not profiled in this plan
update as it focused on natural hazards in
accordance with FEMA local mitigation planning
guidance. However, it may be considered in future
updates.

Stronger support and funding are needed Mitigation is an ongoing process. Gathering support and funding for projects are common
challenges. Additional actions and funding
capabilities that could be enhanced to support this
goal are included in the list of 2023 actions.

The most concerning time for us was the 2020
wildfires that caused awful smoke throughout our
area.

Wildfire smoke was also a concern of the Core
Planning Team. It was considered important to
address this in this plan update, particularly given
recent events. Wildfire smoke was addressed
under the “Wildfire” hazard in this plan update.

Ban fires in the Santa Clara Valley. The smoke
enters my home and causes breathing problems.

The entire neighborhood is affected when people
hold bonfires.

This recommendation was considered beyond the
scope of this hazard mitigation plan update.

Wildfires were considered the primary source of
concern for smoke. Smoke from wildfires was
addressed in this plan update.

Despite heavy rains, still need to focus on future
drought conditions. Also, future pandemics. Would
anticipate domestic infrastructure also represent
increasing targets for domestic terrorism
Mitigation actions were identified for both
inclement weather and drought as a part of this
plan update. Terrorism was not profiled as this
plan update focused on natural hazards in
accordance with FEMA local mitigation planning
guidance. However, it may be considered in future
updates.

Never hear of any task force I can join Multiple plan participants selected additional public education and outreach as a part of their
mitigation actions. Future opportunities to
participate will be advertised publicly. All are
encouraged to review the Santa Clara County
website for additional information.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-7
Public Comment Response
There was no mention of pesticides/herbicides
esp. from professional gardeners. Also air
pollution from living near freeways and greatly
increased population driving in in SC Valley in
recent years. Affordable access to organic food
(vs. genetically modified and sprayed with
pesticides/herbicides). I've had a lot of ground
settling -- 1 foot drop since the Loma Prieta EQ in
1989, and with cold and wet weather recently
more ground settling and my front door latch
would hold the door closed so had to get a barn
latch put in -- lots of expansion and contraction of
house and building materials. ... Way too much
population increase in Silicon Valley, very
concerned about future resources, availability for
everyone, and costing more and getting less.

Food resources were not considered as a part of
this hazard mitigation update.

Offer inexpensive yet good coverage insurance The recommendation was considered beyond the scope of this hazard mitigation plan update but is
noted.

I hope some action is taken to secure Saratoga
Heights area where landslides happened in 80's
and now we see similar issues causing many
issues for residents, and all public utilities
providers like PG&E, SJ Water and
Cupertino/West Valley Sanitation District.

An action item was added by the City of Saratoga
to stabilize Saratoga Heights Drive to reduce the
possibility of landslide, erosion, and roadway
obstruction.

I would like to see more community projects that
encourage people to get involved in environment
preservation.

Noted.

Great job on forming this working group. I’m
hoping the working group incorporates all different
age/sex/race/disability groups, Including the
young, teens and differently abled folks. Telling
folks to get insurance, only solves the end result…
driving preemptive solutions would be more
effective. E.g. employing more environmental
solution minded folks and involving ALL in
discussions would be other suggestions.

The planning process was open to all. Further
public outreach and education as well as plan
maintenance opportunities can be targeted toward
a broad range of stakeholders.

The best thing you can do for county residents is
repave our roads and add drainage points.

The County included an action item on identifying
potential water drainage mitigation projects.

Resources need to be allocated toward hazards
affecting renters. The housing stock in SCC is old;
the majority of landlords appear reluctant to
update their properties to mitigate the hazards
that routinely impact renters (extreme heat/cold
events) or would we catastrophic if they occurred
(severe earthquake).

Multiple plan participants selected additional
public education and outreach initiatives as a part
of their mitigation actions. Renters are one group
that may need additional outreach to understand
their options.

Require use of EcoAtlas.org database of
headwater streams for all hillside community
planning. Require composite mapping of
landslides from property geotech reports in hillside
communities.

This suggestion was not included at this time.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-8
Public Comment Response
Please include multilingual community forums.

Please include changing street light post bulbs,
my community has very dim lightbulbs and some
streets are not safely lit.

Multilingual public education and outreach
opportunities was noted as a capability that could
be expanded.

Would like to see more communities build up
many more CERTs since we will need to rely on
each other during a disaster
CERTs were considered a capability of multiple
participating jurisdictions. Multiple plan
participants included mitigation actions regarding
support CERTs.

Thanks you for what you are doing -- and
especially for publicizing this in various
languages. These issues affect all of us in Santa
Clara County, and it's so important that the
information be disseminated in languages besides
English.

The Core Planning Team agreed. In addition to
the multilingual engagement conducted during this
plan update process, multilingual public education
and outreach opportunities was noted as a
capability that could be expanded. Multiple plan
participants highlighted public education and
outreach as a part of their mitigation actions.

Targeted marketing to neighborhoods and level
risks. Often, news and warnings are not relevant
to all neighborhoods.

Targeted outreach can be a great way to get
relevant information into the hands of the people
who need it the most. Multiple plan participants
selected to include additional public education and
outreach efforts as a part of their mitigation
actions.

We need to slow or stop growth due to traffic
congestion and the greater problems that creates
in an emergency, and due to the overbuilding
adding risk to more people, and stop building tall
buildings on corners of major intersections.

Traffic incidents were not profiled as a hazard in
this plan update as this plan focused on natural
hazards in accordance with FEMA local mitigation
planning guidance however, it could be
considered in future updates.

A lot of the rules have changed since the late
1970s early 1980 when I purchased my home in
San Jose. I have not heard of any Hazard
Mitigation being done in my area of San Jose.

A discussion of San Jose’s previous mitigation
action items and mitigation success stories is
included in the City’s annex in Volume II.

Trees offer significant protection against heat and
wind as well as soil moisture retention but the city
of San Jose has official policies which deforest the
city by burdening low-income residents with the
cost of maintaining trees and adjacent utility
infrastructure, a significant cost risk which
average households in the East Side and
downtown cannot bear.

This was not identified by the City as a concern
during their capability assessment or actions.

However, the city is currently developing other
environmental-focused plans which may consider
this point further.

I am very concerned about the environment of
Santa Clara County and the whole world. I would
like to learn more and be an advocate for change.

I would be happy to do some community outreach
to help reduce the plastic use in the valley and to
see more trees planted and to see the trees near
power lines and trees at risk of falling are pruned
for safety.

All are encouraged to become involved in future
plan maintenance and implementation
opportunities. Please refer to the Santa Clara
County website for more information.

Ensure that there is informed public review of
plan.

The public was provided a two-week opportunity
to review the plan and specific representatives of
community-based organizations were invited to
review it in additional to planning stakeholders.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-9
Public Comment Response
We need to keep water in Anderson to mitigate
fire risk and wildlife damage/death. Mitigation for
possible earthquake shouldn’t trump fire dangers
This suggestion was considered beyond the
scope of this hazard mitigation plan update
however it is noted.

Where are hazardous materials in my community
located? What are the disaster plans for my
community?
These are good questions which reflect the need
for additional public education and outreach.

Multiple plan participants selected these kinds of
actions in their action plan.

I’d like to see power and utility lines go
underground.

Multiple plan participants are actively working on
this or selected to include it as an action item.

From a wildland fire hazard perspective, all
communities south of Los Gatos served by the
Highway 17 corridor can only be honestly
described as death traps. A heavy emphasis on
evacuation, including fuels reductions along major
public roads, is the only way to prevent significant
loss of life. Mitigations would include adequate
defensible space, planned developments with
emergency exits, additional fire agency coverage,
a volunteer fire program for the Santa Clara side
as Santa Cruz side has, and last but not least,
cooperation with certain public and private
landowners who either do not care about or do not
have the funding to address significant wildfire
and fuel hazards. ESPECIALLY SAN JOSE
WATER COMPANY.

All of these types of mitigation measures have
been evaluated. Multiple plan participants listed
similar actions in their action plans. San Jose
Water was identified as a potential planning
partner however, they did not participate in this
plan update.

Fire risks are still extremely real. Homeowners
Insurance is tied to this risk. Defensible space is
the key. It’s neither fun or enjoyable work, but it’s
essential to community safety.

Defensible space is listed as a mitigation action
item for multiple plan participants.

You should include traffic planning as a possible
mitigation measure. With many communities
narrowing roadways to slow traffic, I'm concerned
that if people need to be moved from one area to
another, what was once a possible escape
corridor that could handle more traffic, has greatly
reduced the traffic flow capacity. The city has
installed permanent features that narrow the
roadway to a single lane in each direction with no
option to expand the flow if needed for an
evacuation.

This hazard mitigation plan focused on natural
hazards in accordance with FEMA local mitigation
planning guidance, but this can be reevaluated in
future updates.

Using social media to spread the word has
drawbacks — it can exclude many from
marginalized communities. Please be sure to
broaden your messaging beyond the suburban
upper-middle class.

Multiple in-person meetings were conducted as a
part of this plan update. Further, multiple plan
participants selected additional public education
and outreach as a part of their mitigation actions
moving forward.

Allow us to buy reasonably priced earthquake
insurance covering less than total destruction.

Allow us to remove trees next to houses for fire
safety even when they are healthy.

These suggestions were considered beyond the
scope of this hazard mitigation plan update but
are noted.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-10
Public Comment Response
Don’t let this winter’s record rainfall make you
forget that we live in a drought zone!
This hazard mitigation plan update focused on all
hazards, including both Heavy rain, heavy winds,
extreme temperatures and drought.
(1) Stanford climate scientist, Noah Diffenbaugh,
published peer-reviewed research showing that
we will be subject more frequently and regularly to
both extreme dry spells (leading to wildfires and
water shortages) and extreme wind & rain
patterns (leading to flooding, landslides, and
power outages), all lasting longer periods. We
need to plan for our critical infrastructure (i.e.
electricity and medical services) to sustain this
kind of situations.
(2) We need to be ready for a devastating
earthquake hitting in a bitter and rainy winter.

The Hazard Mitigation Plan is designed to help
communities plan to reduce risk to critical
infrastructure, including community lifelines. Both
climate change and cascading impacts are
considered throughout this plan update.

Fire evacuation in some parts of my community
(Los Altos Hills) will be severely hampered by
one-lane roads and bottlenecks (e.g., Moody
Road by Foothill College) if traffic is not actively
controlled (by a human) to keep vehicles moving.

Specifically, if traffic lights are not deactivated (or set to blink yellow), they alone will create a
massive logjam.

The evaluation of specific evacuation routes was
not a part of the scope of this plan update
however, other current planning processes around
the County are looking into evacuation routes.

Stop building more high density homes in a area
that has regular droughts, limiting people helps w
low supplies. Stop building in areas anyone w
common sense knows could be dangerous, like
below Anderson Dam during the last 25 years
when it was known to be not earthquake safe. The
life's that would have been loss are huge. Areas in
SJ that had landslides in the 1960's should never
be built on yet many are. See what I mean???
Look at how much concrete covers our land,
backyards, water tables cannot be replenished
like that. Common sense folks!!!!
This comment is considered beyond the scope of
this hazard mitigation plan however, integrating
the risk and changes in development information
listed in this plan into future planning
mechanisms, permitting, and development
decisions may lead to the result requested.

Please include local CERT members in you
group. I am currently work in quality and I am very
good at spotting potential hazards and developing
scenarios to fix the issues. SJ CERT program
manager can vouch for me & person in charge of
CERT, my instructor at Santa Clara County Fire
also can. My wife and I are always prepared,
100% all the time!
Stakeholders including CERT members were
invited to planning meetings. All were welcome to
attend the public meetings and provide feedback
on the plan during the review process. All are
welcome to participate in future plan maintenance
and implementation opportunities. More
information will be made available on the Santa
Clara County website.

We need to retrofit buildings in which housing is
built on top of garage or parking, due to increase
risk of collapse in an earthquake.

Mitigation includes retrofitting buildings at risk
from collapse during an earthquake. Multiple plan
participants listed seismic retrofitting as a part of
their mitigation actions.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-11
Public Comment Response
Please consider making a plan for an
electromagnetic pulse or a coronal mass ejection.

Also, i lost power 3 times in the last 2 years due to
pg&e’s equipment failure. Each of these times
was for 30 hours or more. Twice during a
heatwave. Last summer’s power outage cause me
heat exhaustion, with confusion and rapid heart
rate. It was 113 degrees in my neighborhood and
no power. This is so dangerous and I fear it will
happen again, it seems pg&e temporarily fixes the
problem but under strain the equipment breaks
again when we need it most.

Mitigation measures are important for the private
sector to consider as well. PG&E participated as a
stakeholder in this hazard mitigation plan but did
not develop specific actions as a participating
jurisdiction.

Educate hillside communities on the CA aquatic
resource inventory (EcoAtlas.org) by SFEI -
prohibit development near these small streams for
public safety. Compile complete map of all minor
and major landslide areas - most hillside
developments require GeoTech reports which
map these slides but a complete county-wide map
is not publicly available
These actions were not selected at this time.

Additional landslide mapping is available in
Volume II for each participating jurisdiction.

I have questions, how will all of this be funded?
Who pays?
Potential funding sources are listed in this plan
update for each action.

Thank you for doing this. The county needs to
consider a more proactive central role in disaster
planning that umbrellas the cities.

The County is actively involved in supporting
emergency management and hazard mitigation
efforts. The engagement between jurisdictions
and stakeholders that was conducted for this plan
update is described above as well as in each
annex.

Freeway exit at Arastradero from 280 North is
overgrown with weeds and has flammable debris
build-up. The area needs annual weeds/tree
debris mitigation, but this to my knowledge has
never been done. Fire from cigarettes or ignition
from other sources could spread quickly up hill
and into the surrounding fields and community.

Please attend to this area annually.

A related action was included in the community
where this comment came from.

Manage the water supply to homes effectively.

Invest in rainwater harvesting mechanisms at the
household level.

Multiple plan participants noted their support for
rainwater collection during their capability
assessment. Further education and outreach on
this topic could help residents implement this on a
household level. Multiple plan participants
indicated their support for additional public
education and outreach in their mitigation actions.

Hazmat releases are also concerning. This plan focused on natural hazards in accordance with FEMA local hazard mitigation
planning guidance however, this comment is
noted and can be evaluated during future
updates.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-12
Public Comment Response
Has the group done a mapping assessment to
understand the number and location of
multijurisdictional areas? We live in SCC, but 4
houses up and down is Los Altos. Across the
street is Los Altos Hills. We have several hazard
issues that need coordination.

Coordination is one of the main goals of the
multijurisdictional hazard mitigation planning
process. This plan update provided the
opportunity to map and assess risk across
jurisdictions in Santa Clara County as well as
bring partners together. Future opportunities for
plan maintenance and the next plan update are
intended to continue to promote coordination.

Make users pay to put power and water in the
urban forest interface if they want to live there.

Not a government or PGE function.

This suggestion was considered beyond the
scope of this hazard mitigation plan update but is
noted.

I am interested in boosting the flood control
around Palo Alto. My neighborhood association,
AMNA, has discussed it.

All are welcome to participate in future plan
maintenance and implantation opportunities.

Further information will be able on the Santa Clara
County website. Ideas for how to reduce flood risk
in Palo Alto are also listed in this plan update.

We could incorporate this hazard mitigation plan
into all other plans for the future of our community
to ensure that hazard mitigation is the standard
and not the bare minimum.

Future plan integration is a goal of all the plan
participants.

We were able to afford putting in some things like
a Big watertank, propane generator, solar cells for
the sole purpose of mobile electricity, Big bus
batteries to store it, etc. I wish there were small
kiosks where residents could go that they were
aware of--in plain sight, but not commonly
operational--for electricity and water (a tank that
was always filled, and then refilled during an
emergency, as needed). It could hand out masks,
tests, do shots, etc. This current system of trying
to figure out your insurance, etc, was too much.

We could use a single site that was passed
everyday by people, a 30-minute walk from
people during an emergency.

This recommendation was considered outside the
scope of this hazard mitigation plan update but is
noted.

How to protect communities in Santa Clara
County?
This plan addresses multiple actions and
alternatives which can help reduce risk from the
hazards Santa Clara County faces.

Need the City of Santa Clara to hold public
hearings on these topics!
Residents of the City of Santa Clara were
welcome to attend two virtual and five in-person
meetings on this plan update. Residents are
encouraged to keep in touch with the city via
social media for future opportunities.
consider incentive programs for personal
emergency preparedness: rebates on expenses.

This suggestion was considered beyond the
scope of this hazard mitigation plan update but is
noted.

As an apartment renter, unclear what I can do or
what I should ask for/about wrt(sic) hazard
mitigation.

Renters often need additional information to
understand their options. Multiple plan participants
included public education and outreach initiatives
as a part of their mitigation actions.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-13
Public Comment Response
Please create a plan and educate the community. Multiple plan participants included public education and outreach initiatives as a part of
their mitigation actions.

We are on a ridge, hence no personal concern
related to flood or dam failure. Built home in 1980.

Structure and property did just fine in Loma Prieta
quake so we feel very fortunate. Extremely
concerned about potential for wildfire issues
however. No problem with insurance so far, but
have intentionally avoided discussing the issue
with our long-standing provider. New buyers in our
neighborhood have been consistently turned
down for insurance due to fire hazard. I am
president of our small (20 properties) HOA and
would welcome being a conduit for any relevant
information. Many thanks to whoever is reading
this for all that you are doing for our county-wide
community!
All are welcome to participate in future plan
maintenance and implementation opportunities,
including HOAs. Further information will be
available on the Santa Clara County website.

Good Job on the survey. I think the most
important hazard is fire as we live in a valley
surrounded by hillsides. Sea Rise might be next
(flooding in Sunnyvale all the way to El Camino?)
and then earthquakes. I think more regular people
should be trained in emergency preparedness.

Thanks again for the opportunity to participate in
the survey.

All of the hazards listed are profiled in this hazard
mitigation plan update. Additional public education
and outreach initiatives were selected as part of
multiple plan participants’ mitigation actions.

Fire Hazard risk reporting system should be
available and a well-known like 911
The area we live in Cupertino has very high risk of
Fire Hazard due to poor maintenance of the open
area. But I still have not found an effective
authority to contact after many years
Issues like knowing who to contact can be
resolved through additional education and
outreach. Multiple plan participants included
additional public education and outreach activities
as a part of their mitigation actions.

Please get Caltrans and the State to clear the
overgrown and dead foliage on Highway 9
(Saratoga-Los Gatos Rd.) It's the only wildfire
evacuation route for my house and many others.

This activity was considered beyond the scope of
this hazard mitigation plan update but is noted.

I think it is time to re-implement natural disaster
and civil defense training & preparedness for
communities. Evacuation plans, how to shelter-inplace, community/neighborhood-based support groups. Better to be prepared than to panic.

Multiple plan participants included additional
public education and outreach activities as a part
of their mitigation actions.

It is vitally important to actively go into the
community and send specialists to observe survey
storm and any disaster damages to private
property, non-county maintained roads and
infrastructures, wells, etc. in unincorporated areas
of County-- so to NOT FAIL in acquiring
constituents needed relief, and Hazard Mitigation
funding for resilience planning for all Disasters,
including Wildfire.

The County actively supports obtaining Hazard
Mitigation funding and identified this as a
capability that can be increased this planning
cycle.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-14
Public Meeting Summary
A total of seven public meetings, two virtual and five in-person, were held across the OA. During these meetings, members of the public were surveyed in-person, invited to take the digital MJHMP survey, and had the opportunity to discuss their hazard-related concerns. The results helped the plan participants including the County learn about the public’s interests, hazard impacts, and awareness of their risks.

Figure 80: Sample Public Feedback on Hazard Impacts - Gilroy Meeting Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-15
Figure 81: Sample Public Feedback on Hazard Impacts - Campbell Meeting Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-16
Figure 82: Sample In-Person Feedback Option - Gilroy Meeting Table 144: General Feedback Received
Public Feedback
Wind is a real concern. Falling trees and powerlines are scary to deal with.

Residents are not universally affected by flooding.

Needs to be planning for evacuation on non-County maintained roads. How many residents are in Lexington Hills? No one is paying attention or communicating what is going on in these areas.

PG&E doesn’t care about their mess.

Power is slow to come back on in current event. (Note: There was a heat wave at the time of this meeting)
“Priorities” shift seasonally, but they are all important.

Living with wildfires is a new reality for us. People are working outside when the air is unbreathable.

Indoor workers work without money for air filtration systems. Not just need for cool centers, but filtration.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-17
Public Feedback
Drought – a community well system is expensive. This is another hazard that is seasonal. Need better system for capturing stormwater runoff. Need more education and funding. Need help installing residential and community systems.

San Jose Water increasing rates, doing a lot of work right now Flooding – takes a long time to recover from losses, get back to pre-disaster state. Roads washing out.

Flooding is an additional insurance, many areas didn’t know it was something they needed.

Extreme heat events happening more frequently and closer together than they use to. (“Once in 25 year rainfall” is happening five times per month)
Weekly newsletters/newspapers to spread information
Sirens in Gilroy, used them in ’98, haven’t used recently to signify floods. Five minutes can make a big difference as a house floods.

Monterey County uses Alert/Sheriff system all the time – has evacuation warning and fire maps. Make you respond that they’ve reached out.

How much time is enough time to evacuate and prepare? Depends on the event. Storms vs fire vs drought have really different timescale.

Averages don’t always capture the real situation on the ground – also look at min and max.

Why are these outreach meetings not also being sent out as press release to local news media for general circulation. Weekly newspapers service each of the different areas of the County unincorporated areas: make a requirement for public notice? County failed to designate evacuation route planning since 2009 CWPP recommendations.

Subdivisions of 30+ homes share a single egress route.

Participants expressed some frustration that the County does not engage with the South County communities enough.

Many questions about how the County is letting people in general know about hazards, specifically flood zones and flood risks, and how are the County is specifically reaching out to farm worker camps.

A reminder that mailing the property owners (directly or through water bill, etc) does not always provide information to renters or temporary residents.

One question about noxious fumes from a sewage plant impacting a neighborhood.

Advance Earthquake warning system should be in place.

Flood area warning system for the public within the areas that are known to flood regularly.

Air quality and evacuation for farm workers. The recent fires showed that the farm workers were not given notices for evacuations or poor air quality like the homeowners in the new housing tracks.

A few key takeaways from this public feedback was how concerned the public is with their risk from the hazards the OA face. Climate-change related changes in hazard frequency and severity is already being felt across the OA. This puts more people in harm’s way from hazards they were not aware they would have to face. Further impacts are discussed throughout the hazard profiles and jurisdictional-specific vulnerabilities are highlighted in Volume II of this plan.

Further, there is significant need for additional public education and outreach. The public may be aware of some hazards, but not all risk is equal. Outreach to both homeowners and renters is important. Mitigation measures such as air filtration are also needed not only for public infrastructure, but residential and private sector structures as well. Additional public education and outreach actions are identified in Volume II of this plan.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-18
Listening Section Summaries
Summary
Safety Element/MJHMP Update
Listening Session # 1: CARAS
December 15, 2022 5:30 – 7:00 PM
Facilitators: Sam Gutierrez, Principal Planner, County of Santa Clara Location: CARAS, Gilroy, CA
The Listening Session began with a poll to help the County better understand community demographics and experiences. As illustrated in Figure 1. What City Do you Live In/Near? A majority of residents live in or near Gilroy.

Figure 1. What City Do you Live In/Near?
As illustrated in Figure 2. Hazardous Events with the Greatest Impact, participants have experienced a broad range of hazardous events with Extreme Heat the primary event. Drought, wildfire + smoke, and Q1: What City Do You Live In/Near?
Watsonville
Morgan Hill
11% 4%
Milpitas
4%
Gilroy Milpitas Morgan Hill Watsonville
Gilroy
81%
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-19
flooding were experienced by 14 percent of participants. 82 percent of all participants have experienced a hazardous event that has impacted their life or home in the past 5 years.

Figure 2. Hazardous Events with the Greatest Impact
Approximately 4 out of 5 participants do not have a home emergency preparedness kit or supplies to support their household in the event of an emergency.

Figure 3. Emergency Preparedness Supplies
Finally, only 15 percent of participants were aware of County Services or Programs to support them prepare or respond to a hazardous event as illustrated in in Figure 4. County Services Awareness.

Q2: In the Past 5 Years, What Hazardous Event Has
Had the Greatest Impact on Your Life/Home?
Other
4%
None of the Above
18%
Earthquake +
Landslide
8%
Flooding
12%
Extreme Heat
Flooding
Other
Drought Wildfire + Smoke
Earthquake + Landslide None of the Above
Wildfire + Smoke
14%
Drought
12%
Extreme Heat
32%
Q3: Do You Have Emergency Preparedness
Supplies?
Partial
7% Yes
15%
No
78%
Yes No Partial
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-20
Figure 4. County Services Awareness.

County staff facilitated a interactive session where participants could respond to questions posted on whiteboards. The following are their responses.

1. What are your primary hazards of concern and why?
Q4: Are You Aware of County Services and
Programs?
Unsure
15%
No
70%
Yes No Unsure
Yes
15%
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-21

1. Extreme Heat / Calorextremo
a. I do not have air conditioning in my home / No tengo aire acondicionado en mi casa 6 b. I have air conditioning in my home, but cannot afford to run it during all heat events / Tengo aire acondicionado en mi casa, pero no puedo costearlo durante eventos de calor extremo 8 c. I work outdoors / Trabajoal airelibre 0
d. I have a family member or friends that work outdoors / Tengo un familiaro amigos que trabajan al aire libre
7 e. No close access to a cooling facility such as a park, library, or community center / Las instalacionesdel centrode enfriamiento, comoparques, bibliotecaso centroscomunitarios, no se encuentrancercade mí
2 f. There are cooling facilities such as a park, library, or community center in my community, but I don’t have physical access or do not feel safe going. / Instalaciones de centros de enfriamiento, como un parque, bibliotecas o centros comunitarios en mi comunidad, pero no puedo viajar allí debido al acceso físico o problemas de seguridad
2 2. Drought / Sequía
a. Plants are dying / Las plantas se están poniendo marrones y/o muriendo 3 b. Financial hardship of increased water cost / El aumento de los costos del agua es un desafío para mí
6 c. Water restrictions affect my health and well-being / Las restricciones de agua afectan mi salud y bienestar
3 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-22
d. I work in agriculture or a related and drought has led to less work / Trabajo en el sector agrícola y la sequía ha provocado menos trabajo
5 3. Wildfire + Smoke / Incendioforestal+ Humo
a. Injury to myself, family, friends / Lesión a mí mismo, familia, amigos 6 b. Loss of home, car, belongings / Pérdidade casa, coche, pertenencias 5 c. Don’t have insurance to cover my belongings / No tengo seguro contra incendios para proteger mi propiedad y pertenencias
6 d. I am sensitive to smoke and pollution / Soy sensible al humo y la contaminación del aire 4 e. I have a family member or friends that are sensitive to smoke and pollution / Tengo un familiaro amigos que son sensibles al humo y la contaminación del aire 4 f. Fear of not being able to escape wildfire / Miedo a no poder escapar de un incendio forestal 5 g. Don’t have information where to go during event of a wildfire evacuation / No sabe adónde ir durante un evento de evacuación por incendio forestall
5 4. Flooding / Inundación
a. Injury to myself, family, friends / Lesión a mí mismo, familia, amigos 10 b. Loss of home, car, belongings / Pérdidade casa, coche, pertenencias 6 c. Don’t have insurance to cover my belongings / No tengo seguro contra inundaciones para proteger mi propiedad y pertenencias
6 d. Fear of not being able to escape a flood / / Miedo a no poder escapar de una inundación 4 e. Don’t have information where to go during event of a flooding evacuation / No sabe adónde ir durante un evento de evacuación por inundación
6 5. Earthquake+ Landslide / Terremoto+ Deslizamientode tierra a. Injury to myself, family, friends / Lesión a mí mismo, familia, amigos 10 b. Loss of home, car, belongings / Pérdidade casa, coche, pertenencias 8 c. Don’t have insurance to cover my belongings / No tengo seguro contra terremotos para proteger mi propiedad y pertenencias
5 d. Fear of not being able to escape landslide / No sé si los peligros de deslizamientos de tierra son una preocupación para mi comunidad
5 e. Don’t have information where to go during event of an earthquake evacuation / No sabe qué hacer o adónde ir después de un terremoto
9 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-23

2. Which of the following applies to your household? Check all that apply. a. My household can easily cover the cost of housing. / Mi hogar puede cubrir fácilmente el costo de la vivienda.
1 b. My household can easily cover other regular expenses like transportation, food, and healthcare. / Mi hogar puede cubrir fácilmente otros gastos regulares como transporte, comida y atención médica. 1 c. My household has spent more than $100 in the past year on repairing damages caused by the environment or reducing potential impacts. / Mi hogar ha gastado más de $100 el año pasado en reparar daños causados por peligros o reducir problemas futuros. 4 d. We have delayed repairs we want to do to our home (like roof, windows, mold) because of cost. / Hemos retrasado las reparaciones que queremos hacer en nuestra casa (como el techo, las ventanas, el moho) debido al costo.
5 e. We do not have or need flood insurance. / No tenemos seguro contra inundaciones. 5 f. We do not have earthquake insurance. / No tenemossegurocontra terremotos. 9 g. If my household faced a $400 emergency expense, we would not be able to immediately pay for it in cash. / Si mi hogar enfrentara un gasto de emergencia de $400, no podríamos pagarlo inmediatamente en efectivo.
10 h. In order to pay a $400 emergency expense, my household would have to pay with a credit card or borrow the money. / Para pagar un gasto de emergencia de $400, mi hogar tendría que pagar con una tarjeta de crédito o pedir prestado el dinero.
9 i. Other / Otro
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-24

3. What information or materials would be helpful to make you feel safer in future hazardous events? What County resources or programs (e.g., fire safety) would be helpful to prepare you for future hazardous events?
What information or materials would be helpful to make you feel safer in future hazardous events?
a. Emergency alerts / Alertasde emergencia 7
b. Know evacuation routes / Conoce las rutas de evacuación 7 c. Items to keep in an emergency preparedness kit / Artículos para tener en un kit de preparación para emergencias
5 d. What to do with pets / Que hacer con las mascotas 4 e. Where are shelters or temporary cooling centers / Dondese ubican albergueso centros de enfriamiento temporal
5 What County resources or programs (e.g., fire safety) would be helpful to prepare you for future hazardous events?
a. Phone app that provides alerts / Aplicación de teléfono que proporciona alertas 3 b. Information about financial resources or services to support preparedness / Información sobre recursos financieros o servicios para apoyar la preparación 2 c. Written information provided in my language spoken / Información escrita proporcionada en mi idioma hablado
2 d. The ability to call someone at the County for support in my language / La capacidad de llamar 2 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-25
aalguien en el condado para obtener apoyo en mi idioma

5. Which of the following would you prioritize for neighborhood improvements? a. Improved transit infrastructure (bus stops, signs, benches) / Infraestructurade tránsitomejorada(paradasde autobús, letreros, bancos)
8 b. Safer biking routes / Rutasciclistasmásseguras 2
c. Pedestrian safety (sidewalks, crosswalks, speed bumps) / Rutas peatonales más seguras (aceras, cruces peatonales, badenes)
4 d. Improved water supply (safe drinking, firefighting) / Mejor suministro de agua (bebida segura, extinción de incendios)
4 e. Flood barriers / Barreras contra inundaciones 2
f. Security cameras for safety and dumping / Cámaras de seguridad para seguridad y vertido 3 g. More or improved parks /Más parqueso mejorados 2
h. Improved roads (potholes) / Carreterasmejoradas(baches) 4 i. Air quality monitoring / Monitoreo de la calidad del aire 2 j. Cool and clean air shelters (community center) / Centrosde enfriamiento/refugiosde airelimpio(centrocomunitario)
0 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-26
Summary
Safety Element/MJHMP Update
Listening Session # 3: CRC
March 15, 2023 5:30 – 7:00 PM
Facilitators: Sam Gutierrez, Principal Planner, County of Santa Clara Location:

Campbell Community Center, Campbell, CA
The Listening Session began with a poll to help the County better understand community demographics and experiences. As illustrated in Figure 1. What City Do you Live In/Near? A majority of residents live in or near Sunnyvale.

Figure 1. What City Do you Live In/Near?
Santa Clara
9%
San Jose
27%
Sunnyvale
46%
Sunnyvale Palo Alto
Palo Alto
9%
Lexington Hills San Jose Santa Clara
As illustrated in Figure 2. Hazardous Events with the Greatest Impact, participants have experienced a broad range of hazardous events with Extreme Heat the primary event, followed by Drought. Wildfire + smoke, and flooding were experienced by at least 11 percent of participants. 97 percent of all participants have experienced a hazardous event that has impacted their life or home in the past 5 years.

Lexington Hills
9%
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-27
Figure 2. Hazardous Events with the Greatest Impact
None of the
Earthquake +
Landslide
7%
Other
11%
Above
3%
Extreme Heat
29%
Wildfire +
Smoke
18%
Flooding
11%
Drought
21%
Extreme Heat Drought Flooding
Wildfire + Smoke Earthquake + Landslide Other
None of the Above
Approximately 1/3 of participants do not have a home emergency preparedness kit or supplies to support their household in the event of an emergency as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Emergency Preparedness Supplies
Yes No Partial
Finally, only 46 percent of participants were aware of County Services or Programs to support them prepare or respond to a hazardous event as illustrated in in Figure 4. County Services Awareness.

Yes
18%
Partial
46%
No
36%
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-28
Figure 4. County Services Awareness.

Yes No Unsure
County staff facilitated a interactive session where participants could respond to questions posted on whiteboards.

The following are their responses.

1. What are your primary hazards of concern and why?
Wildfire, severe rainstorms and evacuation planning, eroded roads

1. Extreme Heat / Calorextremo
a. I do not have air conditioning in my home / No tengo aire acondicionado en mi casa 1 b. I have air conditioning in my home, but cannot afford to run it during all heat events / Tengo aire acondicionado en mi casa, pero no puedo costearlo durante eventos de calor extremo 1 c. I work outdoors / Trabajoal airelibre
d. I have a family member or friends that work outdoors / Tengo un familiaro amigos que trabajan al aire libre
1 e. No close access to a cooling facility such as a park, library, or community center / Las instalacionesdel centrode enfriamiento, comoparques, bibliotecaso centroscomunitarios, no se encuentrancercade mí
f. There are cooling facilities such as a park, library, or community center in my community, but I don’t have physical access or do not feel safe going. / Instalaciones de centros de enfriamiento, como un parque, bibliotecas o centros comunitarios en mi comunidad, pero no puedo viajar allí debido al acceso físico o problemas de seguridad
Yes
46%
No
45%
Unsure
9%
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-29

2. Drought / Sequía
a. Plants are dying / Las plantas se están poniendo marrones y/o muriendo 3 b. Financial hardship of increased water cost / El aumento de los costos del agua es un desafío para mí
3 c. Water restrictions affect my health and well-being / Las restricciones de agua afectan mi salud y bienestar
1 d. I work in agriculture or a related and drought has led to less work / Trabajo en el sector agrícola y la sequía ha provocado menos trabajo

3.Wildfire + Smoke / Incendioforestal+ Humo
a. Injury to myself, family, friends / Lesión a mí mismo, familia, amigos 1 b. Loss of home, car, belongings / Pérdidade casa, coche, pertenencias 1 c. Don’t have insurance to cover my belongings / No tengo seguro contra incendios para proteger mi propiedad y pertenencias
1 d. I am sensitive to smoke and pollution / Soy sensible al humo y la contaminación del aire 5 e. I have a family member or friends that are sensitive to smoke and pollution / Tengo un familiaro amigos que son sensibles al humo y la contaminación del aire 5 f. Fear of not being able to escape wildfire / Miedo a no poder escapar de un incendio forestal 2 g. Don’t have information where to go during event of a wildfire evacuation / No sabe adónde ir durante un evento de evacuación por incendio forestall
5 4. Flooding / Inundación
a. Injury to myself, family, friends / Lesión a mí mismo, familia, amigos b. Loss of home, car, belongings / Pérdidade casa, coche, pertenencias c. Don’t have insurance to cover my belongings / No tengo seguro contra inundaciones para proteger mi propiedad y pertenencias
4 d. Fear of not being able to escape a flood / / Miedo a no poder escapar de una inundación 4 e. Don’t have information where to go during event of a flooding evacuation / No sabe adónde ir durante un evento de evacuación por inundación
2 5. Earthquake+ Landslide / Terremoto+ Deslizamientode tierra a. Injury to myself, family, friends / Lesión a mí mismo, familia, amigos 4 b. Loss of home, car, belongings / Pérdidade casa, coche, pertenencias 3 c. Don’t have insurance to cover my belongings / No tengo seguro contra terremotos para proteger mi propiedad y pertenencias
3 d. Fear of not being able to escape landslide / No sé si los peligros de deslizamientos de tierra son una preocupación para mi comunidad
2 e. Don’t have information where to go during event of an earthquake evacuation / No sabe qué hacer o adónde ir después de un terremoto
3 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-30

2. Which of the following applies to your household? Check all that apply. a. My household can easily cover the cost of housing. / Mi hogar puede cubrir fácilmente el costo de la vivienda.
2 b. My household can easily cover other regular expenses like transportation, food, and healthcare. / Mi hogar puede cubrir fácilmente otros gastos regulares como transporte, comida y atención médica. 2 c. My household has spent more than $100 in the past year on repairing damages caused by the environment or reducing potential impacts. / Mi hogar ha gastado más de $100 el año pasado en reparar daños causados por peligros o reducir problemas futuros. 3 d. We have delayed repairs we want to do to our home (like roof, windows, mold) because of cost. / Hemos retrasado las reparaciones que queremos hacer en nuestra casa (como el techo, las ventanas, el moho) debido al costo.
3 e. We do not have or need flood insurance. / No tenemos seguro contra inundaciones. 4 f. We do not have earthquake insurance. / No tenemossegurocontra terremotos. 2 g. If my household faced a $400 emergency expense, we would not be able to immediately pay for it in cash. / Si mi hogar enfrentara un gasto de emergencia de $400, no podríamos pagarlo inmediatamente en efectivo.
1 h. In order to pay a $400 emergency expense, my household would have to pay with a credit card or borrow the money. / Para pagar un gasto de emergencia de $400, mi hogar tendría que pagar con una tarjeta de crédito o pedir prestado el dinero.
1 i. Other / Otro

3. What information or materials would be helpful to make you feel safer in future hazardous events? What County resources or programs (e.g., fire safety) would be helpful to prepare you for future hazardous events?
a. Emergency alerts / Alertasde emergencia 5
b. Know evacuation routes / Conoce las rutas de evacuación 5 c. Items to keep in an emergency preparedness kit / Artículos para tener en un kit de preparación para emergencias
3 d. What to do with pets / Que hacer con las mascotas 2 e. Where are shelters or temporary cooling centers / Dondese ubican albergueso centros de enfriamiento temporal
3 Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-31
What County resources or programs (e.g., fire safety) would be helpful to prepare you for future hazardous events?
a. Phone app that provides alerts / Aplicación de teléfono que proporciona alertas 4 b. Information about financial resources or services to support preparedness / Información sobre recursos financieros o servicios para apoyar la preparación 3 c. Written information provided in my language spoken / Información escrita proporcionada en mi idioma hablado
1 d. The ability to call someone at the County for support in my language / La capacidad de llamar aalguien en el condado para obtener apoyo en mi idioma

5. Which of the following would you prioritize for neighborhood improvements? a. Improved transit infrastructure (bus stops, signs, benches) / Infraestructurade tránsitomejorada(paradasde autobús, letreros, bancos)
1 b. Safer biking routes / Rutasciclistasmásseguras
c. Pedestrian safety (sidewalks, crosswalks, speed bumps) / Rutas peatonales más seguras (aceras, cruces peatonales, badenes)
3 d. Improved water supply (safe drinking, firefighting) / Mejor suministro de agua (bebida segura, extinción de incendios)
1 e. Flood barriers / Barreras contra inundaciones 2
f. Security cameras for safety and dumping / Cámaras de seguridad para seguridad y vertido 1 g. More or improved parks /Más parqueso mejorados 1
h. Improved roads (potholes) / Carreterasmejoradas(baches) 4 i. Air quality monitoring / Monitoreo de la calidad del aire 3 j. Cool and clean air shelters (community center) / Centrosde enfriamiento/refugiosde airelimpio(centrocomunitario)
General comments:
• Wind is a real concern. Falling trees and powerlines are scary to deal with. • Residents are not universally affected by flooding.
• Needs to be planning for evacuation on non-County maintained roads. How many residents are in Lexington Hills? No one is paying attention or communicating what is going on in these areas. • PG&E doesn’t care about their mess.
• Power is slow to come back on in current event. (Note: These was a heat wave at time of listening session.)
• “Priorities” shift seasonally, but they are all important. • Living with wildfires is a new reality for us.
o People are working outside when the air is unbreathable. o Indoors [workers] work without money for air filtration systems. o Not just need for cooling centers, but filtration.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix A: Public Engagement Results A-32
• Drought – A community well system is expensive.
o This is another hazard that is seasonal.
o Need better system for capturing stormwater runoff. Need more education and funding. Need help installing residential and community systems.
• San Jose Water increasing rates, doing a lot of work right now • Flooding
o Takes a long time to recover from losses, get back to pre-disaster state o Roads washing out
o Flooding is an additional insurance, many areas didn’t know it was something they needed. • Extreme heat events happening more frequently and closer together than they use to. (“Once in 25 year rainfall” is happening five times per month)
• Weekly newsletters/newspapers to spread information.
• Sirens in Gilroy, used them in ’98, haven’t used recently to signify floods. o Five minutes can make a big difference as a house floods. • Monterey County uses Alert/Sheriff system all the time – has evacuation warning and fire maps. o Make you respond that they’ve reached you.
• How much time is enough time to evacuate and prepare? Depends on the event. Storms vs fire vs drought have really different timescale.
• Averages don’t always capture the real situation on the ground – also look at min and max. • Why are these outreach meetings not also being sent out as press release to local news media for general circulation. Weekly newspapers service each of the different areas of the County unincorporated areas: Make a requirement for Public Notice?
• County failed to designate evacuation route planning since 2009 CWPP recommendations.

Subdivisions of 30+ homes share a single egress route.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan—DRAFT Appendix B: Adoption Resolution B-1
Appendix B: Adoption Resolution
Once the 2023 Santa Clara Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan (MJHMP) has received FEMA “Approvable Pending Adoption” (APA) status, the governing body of every participating jurisdiction will formally adopt this MJHMP.

After FEMA has determined that all plan requirements have been met, including receipt of the formal adoption documentation, FEMA will provide a letter indicating the plan is approved.

A copy of the adoption resolutions and approval letter are included in this appendix.

Santa Clara County
Multijurisdictional Hazard
Mitigation Plan 2023 Update
City of Santa Clara Annex
February 21, 2024
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Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 3

1. City of Santa Clara

1.1. Hazard Mitigation Plan Points of Contact
The point of contact during the Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan (MJHMP) planning process for the City of Santa Clara was the Emergency Management Analyst. This annex within the MJHMP was developed using information provided by the City of Santa Clara’s Local Planning Team.

Table 1: City of Santa Clara Local Planning Team Members for the 2023 Santa Clara County MJHMP
Name Position Department Role on Team and in Planning
Process
Jennifer Guzman Emergency
Management
Analyst
Office of
Emergency
Services
General oversight, hazard
identification, and plan development,
Plan Review Committee
Gary Welling Director of Water
& Sewer Utilities
Water & Sewer
Utilities
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Shilpa Mehta Assistant Director
of Water & Sewer
Utilities
Water & Sewer
Utilities
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Craig Mobeck Director of Public
Works
Public Works Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Michael Liw Assistant Director
of Public Works
Public Works Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Falguni Amin Principal Engineer Public Works Hazard identification and plan development, Plan Review Committee
Manuel Pineda Chief Electric
Utility Officer
Silicon Valley
Power (SVP) [City
of Santa Clara
Electric Utility]
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Kevin Kolnowski Electric Utility
Chief Operating
Officer
Silicon Valley
Power (SVP) [City
of Santa Clara
Electric Utility]
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Andrew Crabtree Director of
Community
Development,
Floodplain
Manager
Community
Development
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
John Davidson Principal Planner Community
Development
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Armand Lobao Building Official Community
Development
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 4
Name Position Department Role on Team and in Planning
Process
Ruben Torres Fire Chief City of Santa
Clara Fire
Department
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
John Madden Deputy Fire Chief City of Santa
Clara Fire
Department
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Jeremy Ray Deputy Fire Chief City of Santa
Clara Fire
Department
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Dennis Yee Fire Captain City of Santa
Clara Fire
Department
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Wahid Kazem Assistant Police
Chief
City of Santa
Clara Police
Department
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Cuong Phan Police Lieutenant City of Santa
Clara Police
Department
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
Michelle
Templeton
Sustainability
Manager
City Manager’s
Office
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
David Knight Communication
Management
Analyst
Office of
Communications
Hazard identification and plan
development, Plan Review Committee
The City’s Local Planning Team Members participated in the MJHMP by attending meetings on the Plan Kick-Off, Risk Assessment, Capabilities Assessment, Mitigation Strategy, Wrap-up, and five one-on-one meetings with the planning consultant. In addition, the city filled out the requested forms on each section which were used to develop this annex. The city also shared information regarding public opportunities to participate in the draft plan update utilizing the digital survey and seven in-person and virtual public outreach meetings. Further, the City team was provided the opportunity to review the draft plan prior to submittal to Cal OES and FEMA.

Table 2: External Stakeholders Invited to Be Involved in Planning Process Agency or Organization Stakeholder Type Description
American Red Cross Representatives of nonprofit
organizations, including
community-based organizations,
that work directly with and/or
provide support to underserved
communities and socially
vulnerable populations, among
others.

A nonprofit humanitarian
organization that provides
emergency assistance, disaster
relief, and disaster
preparedness education in the
United States.

Amateur Radio Emergency
Service (ARES)
Representatives of businesses,
academia, and other private
organizations.

A corps of trained amateur radio
operator volunteers organized to
assist in public service and
emergency communications.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 5
Agency or Organization Stakeholder Type Description
Avenidas Representatives of nonprofit
organizations, including
community-based organizations,
that work directly with and/or
provide support to underserved
communities and socially
vulnerable populations.

Non-profit dedicated to helping
older adults find critical
programs and services.

CADRE - Collaborating
Agencies’ Disaster Relief Effort
Representatives of nonprofit
organizations, including
community-based organizations,
that work directly with and/or
provide support to underserved
communities and socially
vulnerable populations.

A leading network of
organizations that provide
community services that are
essential.

California Office of Emergency
Services (Cal OES)
Local and regional agencies
involved in hazard mitigation
activities.

Office responsible for
overseeing and coordinating
emergency preparedness,
response, recovery, and
homeland security activities
within the state.

California Department of
Forestry and Fire Protection
Local and regional agencies
involved in hazard mitigation
activities.

The fire department of the
California Natural Resources
Agency.

California Department of
Transportation
Agencies that have the authority
to regulate development.

An executive department of the
U.S. state of California.

Cattlemen’s Association Representatives of businesses,
academia, and other private
organizations.

A nonprofit trade association
that represents California's
ranchers and beef producers in
political affairs.

City of East Palo Alto Neighboring communities. A city in San Mateo County, California, United States.

City of Menlo Park Neighboring communities. Menlo Park is a city at the eastern edge of San Mateo
County.

Cooper-Garrod Estate
Vineyards
Representatives of businesses,
academia, and other private
organizations.

Garrod Farms is a family-owned
and operated estate winery and
stables.

Department of Homeland
Security
Agencies that have the authority
to regulate development.

The U.S. federal executive
department responsible for
public security, roughly
comparable to the interior or
home ministries of other
countries.

Department of Toxic
Substances
Agencies that have the authority
to regulate development.

An agency of the government of
the state of California that
protects public health and the
environment from hazardous
waste.

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Agency or Organization Stakeholder Type Description
Downtown Streets Team Representatives of nonprofit
organizations, including
community-based organizations,
that work directly with and/or
provide support to underserved
communities and socially
vulnerable populations.

Teams that restore dignity,
inspire hope, and provide a
pathway to recover from
homelessness.

Emergency Medical Services Agencies that have the authority to regulate development.

Provides statewide coordination
and leadership for the planning,
development, and
implementation of
local EMS systems.

Emergency Services Volunteer
Representative
Local and regional agencies
involved in hazard mitigation
activities.

Organization that ensures public
safety, security, and health by
addressing and resolving
different emergencies.

Federal Aviation Administration Agencies that have the authority to regulate development.

Offers civil aviation safety
enforcement services.

Google Representatives of businesses,
academia, and other private
organizations.

American multinational
technology company focusing
on artificial intelligence, online
advertising, search engine
technology, cloud computing,
computer software, quantum
computing, e-commerce, and
consumer electronics.

Hidden Villa Farm Representatives of nonprofit
organizations, including
community-based organizations,
that work directly with and/or
provide support to underserved
communities and socially
vulnerable populations, among
others.

Nonprofit educational
organization teaching programs
on environmental and
multicultural awareness.

Intel Corporation Representatives of businesses,
academia, and other private
organizations.

An American multinational
corporation and technology
company headquartered in
Santa Clara, California.

Kaiser Permanente—Santa
Clara
Representatives of nonprofit
organizations, including
community-based organizations,
that work directly with and/or
provide support to underserved
communities and socially
vulnerable populations.

An American integrated
managed care consortium.

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Agency or Organization Stakeholder Type Description
Life Moves Representatives of nonprofit
organizations, including
community-based organizations,
that work directly with and/or
provide support to underserved
communities and socially
vulnerable populations.

Provides interim housing and
supportive services for
homeless families and
individuals to rapidly return to
stable housing.

Moffett Field Ames Research
Center, National Aeronautics
and Space Administration
(NASA)
Representatives of businesses,
academia, and other private
organizations.

Major NASA research center
at Moffett Federal Airfield in
California's Silicon Valley.

National Weather Service,
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA)
Agencies that have the authority
to regulate development.

Scientific and regulatory agency
within the U.S. Department of
Commerce.

Pacheco Pass Water District Neighboring communities. Independent special water district.

Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) Representatives of businesses, academia, and other private
organizations, and neighboring
communities.

One of the largest combination
natural gas and electric utilities
in the United States.

Regional Water Quality Control
Board
Agencies that have the authority
to regulate development.

Provides government regulatory
services related to water
pollution and control.

Rotating Safe Car Park Local and regional agencies
involved in hazard mitigation
activities, and neighboring
communities.

Allows for temporary overnight
parking for homeless individuals
or families living out of their
cars as a safe alternative to
sleeping on the streets or in a
homeless shelter.

Santa Clara County CERT Representatives of nonprofit
organizations, including
community-based organizations,
that work directly with and/or
provide support to underserved
communities and socially
vulnerable populations.

Trains residents to prepare for
and respond to life-threatening
events in their community.

Santa Clara County FireSafe
Council
Representatives of nonprofit
organizations, including
community-based organizations,
that work directly with and/or
provide support to underserved
communities and socially
vulnerable populations.

A nonprofit, grassroots
organization that provides
education and project
assistance for homeowners.

Santa Clara County Local
Oversight Program
Local and regional agencies
involved in hazard mitigation
activities.

Program to oversee assessment
and mitigation of contaminated
sites to protect groundwater
resources, human health,
safety, and the environment.

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Agency or Organization Stakeholder Type Description
Santa Clara County Parks Agencies that have the authority to regulate development, and
neighboring communities.

Provide, protect, and preserve
regional parklands for the
enjoyment and education.

Santa Clara County Planning &
Development
Agencies that have the authority
to regulate development, and
neighboring communities.

Plays a key role in supporting
economic development and
ensuring opportunities for the
public to participate in
land development.

Santa Clara County Sheriff’s
Office
Agencies that have the authority
to regulate development, and
neighboring communities.

A local law enforcement agency
that serves Santa Clara County,
California.

Santa Clara University Representatives of businesses,
academia, and other private
organizations.

A private Jesuit university in
Santa Clara, California.

Santa Clara Valley Open Space
Authority
Neighboring communities. An independent special district in Santa Clara County.

Santa Cruz County Neighboring communities. A county on the Pacific coast of the U.S. state of California.

St. Louise Hospital (Santa Clara
County Hospital System)
Representatives of nonprofit
organizations, including
community-based organizations,
that work directly with and/or
provide support to underserved
communities and socially
vulnerable populations.

Community hospital.

Stanford Healthcare Representatives of businesses,
academia, and other private
organizations, and neighboring
communities.

Multispecialty clinic that
provides convenient access to
advanced, specialty care in the
South Bay.

Westwind Barn Representatives of businesses,
academia, and other private
organizations.

State-of-the-art horse boarding
and training facility.

County of Santa Clara Neighboring jurisdiction, local
agency involved in hazard
mitigation.

Response for engaging the
whole community in assessing
needs and developing strategies
to achieve stronger mitigation
capabilities within the Santa
Clara County Operational Area.

City of Campbell Neighboring communities. A city in Santa Clara County.

City of Cupertino Neighboring communities. Located in Silicon Valley.

City of Gilroy Neighboring communities. A city in Santa Clara County.

City of Los Altos Neighboring communities. A city in Santa Clara County.

Town of Los Altos Hills Neighboring communities. A city in Santa Clara County.

Town of Los Gatos Neighboring communities. A city in Santa Clara County.

City of Milpitas Neighboring communities. A city in Santa Clara County.

City of Morgan Hill Neighboring communities. A city in Santa Clara County.

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Agency or Organization Stakeholder Type Description
City of Mountain View Neighboring communities. A city in Santa Clara County.

City of Palo Alto Neighboring communities. Located in Silicon Valley.

City of San José Neighboring communities. Located in Silicon Valley.

City of Saratoga Neighboring communities. Located in Silicon Valley.

City of Sunnyvale Neighboring communities. Located in the Santa Clara Valley.

Santa Clara County Fire
Department
Local and regional agencies
involved in hazard mitigation
activities, and neighboring
communities.

A California Fire Protection
District serving Santa Clara
County.

Santa Clara Valley Water
District
Representatives of businesses,
academia, and other private
organizations, and neighboring
communities.

Provides stream stewardship,
wholesale water supply, and
flood protection for Santa Clara
County, California.

Santa Clara actively engaged with a significant number of stakeholders throughout the plan development process by inviting them to meetings, incorporating them into their Local Planning Team, and providing them the opportunity to review the draft plan. These stakeholders included local and regional agencies involved in hazard mitigation activities (like Office of Emergency Services, Public Works Department, Silicon Valley Power, Santa Clara Valley Water District, Regional Water Quality Control Board and Bay Area Air Quality Management District), agencies that have the authority to regulate development (including the city’s Building Official, local Floodplain Manager, Caltrans and Valley Transportation Authority, and Regional Water Quality Control Board), neighboring communities (such as the City of San Jose, City of Sunnyvale, and City of Cupertino), representatives of businesses, academia, and other private organizations (like major employer Intel, the Union Pacific Railroad, Amtrak, Capital Corridor, Mission College, and Santa Clara University), as well as representatives of nonprofit organizations, including community-based organizations, that work directly and/or provide support to underserved communities and socially vulnerable populations (including the American Red Cross, local healthcare organization Kaiser Permanente – Santa Clara, Santa Clara Unified School District, and Santa Clara County FireSafe Council).

1.1.1. Public Outreach and Engagement
In addition to inviting a wide range of stakeholders, the City supported public outreach and engagement through distributing a digital survey utilizing social media, email, and a City newsletter. This survey reached members of underserved populations, including primarily non-English speaking households. In addition, the MJHMP was discussed at two virtual and five in-person public meetings across Santa Clara County. These in-person meetings were targeted towards areas with socially vulnerably populations. This plan update utilized the legal definition of AFN for this approach. The California Government Code Section 8593.3 defines Access and Functional Needs as “Individuals who have: Developmental, intellectual, or physical disabilities; Chronic conditions or injuries; Limited English proficiency or nonEnglish speaking; Or individuals who are: older adults, children, or pregnant; living in institutional settings; or Low-income, homeless, and/or transportation disadvantaged.” In Saratoga, according to the U.S.

Census an estimated 46.1% of the population speaks a language other than English, a key factor to consider while developing any kind of emergency management and mitigation approach to public outreach. The C-MIST framework is used to integrate AFN populations in the operational area into emergency management through communications, maintain health, independence, support, safetyand self-determination, and transportation. These meetings were also designed to be accessible for AFN (access and functional needs) populations. The City actively advertised this opportunity, including Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 10
specifically inviting Listos California members. Listos helps every Californian, regardless of age, ability, income, or language, receive a culturally competent education on preparing for wildfire, flood, earthquake, drought, heatwave, and other disasters. The public was also provided the opportunity to comment on the draft plan.

Comments from the public survey were reviewed, evaluated for alignment with planning priorities, and incorporated as appropriate. Overall, the public expressed concern with similar hazards as the plan participants such as wildfire (including wildfire smoke), flooding, and extreme heat. Additionally, there was multiple mentions of the need for public education and outreach and evacuation routes. Specific recommendations for the City of Santa Clara including holding a public meeting on the hazards. Other relevant feedback included a discussion of the importance of the urban forest and how trees can support resilience. These types of feedback are integrated into the mitigation actions the City has selected.

Figure 1: City of Santa Clara Newsletter
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Figure 2: Email on Public Meeting
Figure 3: Email to Listos
The participation of the City of Santa Clara and its stakeholders helped informed the development of the MJHMP and this annex in accordance with current priorities. The new plan continues to expand upon the work of the prior plan including emphasizing partnerships both within jurisdictions and special districts as well as with external stakeholders. Further, there is an increased emphasis on climate change, reflecting the increased understanding of the risk this hazard poses to the OA. The City did not identify additional changes in priorities to be highlighted in their annex.

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1.2. Jurisdiction Profile
The following is a summary of key information about the jurisdiction and its history:
 Date of Incorporation: July 5, 1852
 Current Population: 130,127 as of January 1, 2022
 Population Growth: Based on the data tracked by the state Department of Finance, the City of Santa Clara has experienced a gradual rate of growth since the year 2000. The overall population has increased by 11.73% percent since 2010 and growth averaged 0.72% percent per year from 2017 to 2022. The City is an important employment center and houses approximately 122,000 jobs. The City is projected by the Association of Bay Area Governments (ABAG) in 2030 to have a resident population of 141,700 and to support 137,480 jobs.  Location and Description: The City of Santa Clara encompasses 18.41 square miles and is located 45 miles south of San Francisco and 382 miles north of Los Angeles. The City of Santa Clara is situated near to the south end of San Francisco Bay in Santa Clara County, also known as Silicon Valley in recognition of the region’s leadership in worldwide technology innovations.

The City boundaries are completely urbanized, and the City is bordered by other urbanized areas, including San José, Cupertino and Sunnyvale. The City is developed on relatively flat terrain and drained by three seasonal creeks, San Tomas Aquino, Saratoga and Calabazas creeks, all of which empty into the southern portion of San Francisco Bay. The Guadalupe River, which also drains into the Bay, defines part of the City’s eastern boundary.  Brief History: By 1850, when California became a state, Santa Clara was an established frontier settlement. In 1851, Santa Clara College, now Santa Clara University, was founded on the Mission site. The incorporation of Santa Clara as a City followed in 1852. In 1866, the City officially established a grid street system to accommodate anticipated growth. The City of Santa Clara, “The Mission City,” has been transformed over the past century, from a small agricultural town to a major employment and community center in Silicon Valley. It is called “Mission City” in reference to the Mission Santa Clara de Asis, which opened in 1777 as one of 21 Spanish missions established by Franciscan padres along El Camino Real in California. The central core of the City grew outward from the original downtown and the Old Quad residential area around the University and Agnew Village - a satellite area that established a base for residential neighborhoods in north Santa Clara. Primarily an agricultural community through the mid-1900s, the City of Santa Clara evolved to become a family-oriented, suburban community of comfortable neighborhoods in the post-World War II era, and the heart of Silicon Valley in the electronics industry boom of the 1970s. In 2014, Levi’s Stadium opened in Santa Clara as the home of the San Francisco 49ers football team and a premier sports and entertainment venue that hosted Super Bowl 50.
 Climate: Santa Clara’s climate is Mediterranean in nature, with mild temperatures year-round.

January is on average the coolest month, with an average low temperature of 42 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and an average high temperature of 58°F. July is on average the warmest month, with an average low temperature of 58°F and an average high temperature of 82°F. Average annual rainfall is 14 inches, with rain concentrated in the winter months (November through March).
 Governing Body Format: Santa Clara is a Charter City with a City Council and City Manager form of government, with the City Manager and City Attorney appointed by the City Council. The City of Santa Clara is governed by a seven-member city council. The Police Chief and City Clerk are elected positions. The City Manager is responsible for hiring all other City staff, preparing an annual budget, and general oversight of City operations, including the City’s utilities. The City consists of fourteen departments: Community Development, Electric Utilities (Silicon Valley Power), Finance, Fire, Human Resources, Information Technology, Library, Parks and Recreation, Public Works, Police, Water and Sewer Utilities, City Attorney’s Office, City Clerk’s Office and the City Manager’s Office. The City also has a separate Stadium Authority and Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 13
Housing Authority, which are overseen by the City Council. The City has eleven commissions that report to the City Council. The City Council assumes responsibility for the adoption of this plan; the City Manager will oversee its implementation.

1.3. Development Trends
Development is prominent in the City of Santa Clara. Over $3 billion in development projects are planned for Santa Clara over the next few years, with the likelihood of more to come. Additionally, the City’s 2010- 2035 General Plan states that the City can expect a significant amount of population and job growth in the future. The Association of Bay Area Governments (ABAG) projects that the County of Santa Clara will grow by 512,900 (27%) in population and 427,480 (46%) in new employment between 2010 and 2035. In the same time frame, ABAG projects that the City of Santa Clara will accommodate nearly six percent of this new population, resulting in 28,300 new residents. Job growth in the City is also expected to grow just as quickly, matching that of the County, with 48,690 new jobs (45% growth).

The City of Santa Clara has increased its population since the previous plan was developed, thereby increasing its vulnerability to hazards. This will likely increase vulnerability to hazards that have the potential to impact the entire city such as heavy rain and associated flooding, high wind, extreme heat, drought, and earthquake. Landslide and wildfire risk are limited and vulnerability to these hazards is not believed to have increased. Santa Clara has and will continue to monitor the vulnerability of its population and increasing educational outreach. New development is anticipated to be slow due to the city being built out. New construction is consistent with General Plan policies and municipal code standards, and as a result, most recent development has occurred outside of identified hazard zones. Due to the fact that there was not a significant growth in population or changes in land use as well as the rigorous implementation of current building codes and standards, the overall vulnerability to all hazards is not expected to increase.

Detailed information regarding the City’s recent and future development trends can be found in Table 163.

Table 3: Recent and Expected Future Development Trends
Criterion Response
Has your jurisdiction annexed
any land since the development
of the previous hazard
mitigation plan?
 If yes, give the estimated
area annexed and estimated
number of parcels or
structures.

No
Is your jurisdiction expected to
annex any areas during the
performance period of this
plan?
 If yes, please describe land
areas and dominant uses.
 If yes, who currently has
permitting authority over
these areas?
No
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 14
Criterion Response
Are any areas targeted for
development or major
redevelopment in the next five
years?
 If yes, please briefly
describe, including whether
any of the areas are in known
hazard risk areas.

The City has adopted Specific Plans and Focus Areas (Tasman East, adopted in 2018; Patrick Henry Drive, adopted in 2022; and Freedom Circle, adopted in 2022) where significant development, primarily residential development, is anticipated. Also, the City has adopted entitlements in recent years for a 9 million sq. ft project named Related Santa Clara. At least the first phase of this multiphase project is expected to be constructed in the next five years.

How many building permits
were issued in your jurisdiction
since the development of the
previous hazard mitigation
plan?
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Total
Number of
Permits
2,185 2,381 2,093 1,458 1,729 1,945
Please provide the number of
permits for each hazard area or
provide a qualitative description
of where development has
occurred.

High Liquefaction Areas: According to the USGS map, the high liquefaction area is approximately 3 miles west of Guadalupe River along the northeast City boundary. The land uses are mostly open land with a small area of low and medium densities of residential, mixed use, and industrial.

Please describe the level of
buildout in the jurisdiction,
based on your jurisdiction’s
buildable lands inventory. If no
such inventory exists, provide a
qualitative description.

The City does not have a buildable lands inventory. The City is completely built out; however, there exists opportunity for intensification of already built out sites. The recently adopted Tasman East Specific Plan, Patrick Henry Drive Specific Plan, and Freedom Focus Area are areas where the General Plan was amended to facilitate redevelopment and intensification, as these are areas with industrial uses that will be converted through the implementation of the specific plans into high density housing.

1.4. Capability Assessment

1.4.1. Resources for the 2023 Planning Initiative
The following technical reports, plans, and regulatory mechanisms were reviewed to provide information for inclusion into the 2023 Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Plan for both Volume 1 and Volume 2 (City of Santa Clara Annex). All the below items were additionally reviewed as part of the full capability assessment for the City of Santa Clara.  City of Santa Clara 2010-2035 General Plan: The General Plan, including the Land Use and Safety Elements, were reviewed for information regarding goals and policies consistent with hazard mitigation for carry over as goals and objectives.  City of Santa Clara Municipal Code: The Municipal Code was reviewed for the capability assessment and to identify opportunities for action plan integration.  Flood Damage Prevention Ordinance: The Flood Damage Prevention Ordinance was reviewed for compliance with the National Flood Insurance Program.  Capital Improvements Plan: The Capital Improvements Plan was reviewed to identify crossplanning initiatives for inclusion as mitigation projects.  The City of Santa Clara Emergency Operations Plan (EOP): This plan was reviewed to complete the Planning Documents portion of this Annex.

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 Technical Reports and Local Information: Outside local resources, technical reports, and references were used to complete the City of Santa Clara Annex.

1.4.2. Full Capability Assessment
An assessment of legal and regulatory capabilities is presented in Table 164 and Table 165. An assessment of fiscal capabilities is presented in Table 166. An assessment of staffing capabilities is presented in Table 167. An assessment of administrative and technical capabilities is presented in Table 168. Information on National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) compliance is presented in Table 169. An assessment of education and outreach capabilities is presented in Table 170. Classifications under various community mitigation programs are presented in Table 171. Development and permitting capabilities are presented in Table 172, and the community’s adaptive capacity for the impacts of climate change is presented in Table 173.

Table 4: Legal and Regulatory Capabilities: Codes, Ordinances, and Requirements Legal and Regulatory
Capability
Local
Authority
Other
Jurisdiction
Authority
State
Mandated
Integration
Opportunity?
Building Code Yes No Yes Yes
Comment: 2019 California Building Code, City Ordinance 2053: 2022 Building Code Update Zoning Ordinance Yes No Yes Yes
Comment: City Code, Title 18
Subdivision
Ordinance
Yes Yes Yes No
Comment: City Code, Chapter 17.05
Stormwater
Management
Ordinance
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Comment: City Code, Chapter 13
Other Natural
Hazard-Specific
Ordinances
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Comment: Water Service and use Rules and Regulations, Ordinance No. 1901, Santa Clara City Code Chapter 13.10 Sewer, Santa Clara City Code Chapter 12.15 Water Post-Disaster
Recovery
No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Real Estate
Disclosure
No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Growth Management Yes No Yes Yes
Comment: City Code, Chapter 2 and Chapter 17
Site Plan Review Yes Yes Yes Yes
Comment: City Code, Title 18
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Legal and Regulatory
Capability
Local
Authority
Other
Jurisdiction
Authority
State
Mandated
Integration
Opportunity?
Environmental
Protection
No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Flood Damage
Prevention
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Comment: City Code, Chapter 15.45
Emergency
Management
Yes No Yes Yes
Comment: City Code, Chapter 2
Climate Change No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Acquisition of land
for open space and
public recreation
uses
No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Table 5: Planning, Legal, and Regulatory Capabilities
Planning, Legal, or Regulatory
Capability
Local
Authority
Other
Jurisdiction
Authority
State
Mandated
Integration
Opportunity?
General Plan Yes Yes Yes Yes
Is the plan compliant with Assembly Bill 2140? Yes
Comment: City of Santa Clara 2010-2035 General Plan
Capital Improvement Plan Yes No Yes Yes
How often is the plan updated? Biannually
Comment: 2023-2024 CIP
Floodplain or Watershed Plan Yes Yes Yes Yes
Comment: City of Santa Clara Risk and Resilience Assessment for the America’s Water Infrastructure Act 2018
Stormwater Management Plan Yes Yes (SCVWD) Yes Yes
Comment: The City has a Stormwater Masterplan which aims to reduce ponding and flooding in the City.

Urban Water Management Plan Yes No Yes Yes
Comment: The City develops Urban Water Management Plan every 5 years that provides an overview of the City’s current and long-term water supplies, future water needs of the City, and the City’s water conservation programs. This Plan does not address any natural hazards.

Habitat Conservation Plan No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

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Planning, Legal, or Regulatory
Capability
Local
Authority
Other
Jurisdiction
Authority
State
Mandated
Integration
Opportunity?
Green Infrastructure Plan Yes No No No
Comment: Green Stormwater Infrastructure Plan
Parks or Open Space Plan No No No No
Comment: The Parks & Recreation Department does not have a systemwide Parks & Open Space Plan, that would be a section/part of the City’s General Plan. The Department will be hiring a consultant in 2023 to develop a Citywide Parks & Recreation Master Plan.

Economic Development Plan No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Transportation Plan No No No No
Comment: The City’s Bicycle Plan and Pedestrian Masterplan have the goal to increase alternative transportation modes (bicycling and walking) through prioritized improvements and programs. These plans don’t address natural hazards, however, increasing alternative modes can reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Shoreline Management Plan No Yes No No
Comment: None Identified.

Community Wildfire Protection Plan No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Forest Management Plan No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Climate Action Plan Yes Yes Yes Yes
Comment: The City established a Climate Action Plan (CAP) in 2013.

Local Emergency Operations Plan Yes No No No
Comment: City adopted the Santa Clara County Plan – Annex L and has a Volume 2 that is localized.

Threat and Hazard Identification and
Risk Assessment (THIRA)
No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Post-Disaster Recovery Plan No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Continuity of Operations Plan No No No No
Comment: None Identified.

Public Health Plan No Yes Yes No
Comment: Santa Clara County Strategic Public Health Plan Other: Response Guides Yes No No Yes
Comment: Severe Weather Response Guide, Unhealthy Air Response Guide, and the Cooling/Warming Center Response Guide
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Table 6: Financial Capabilities
Financial Capability Could the resource be
used to fund future
mitigation activities?
Has the funding resource been
used in the past for mitigation
activities? If yes, for what type
of mitigation activities?
Community Development
Block Grants
Yes No
Other Federal Funding
Programs
Yes No
Capital Improvements Project
Funding
Yes Yes, desilting westside retention
basin, etc., increases flood
protection
Authority to Levy Taxes for
Specific Purposes
Yes, though voter approval
required
Yes, Storm/Flood mitigation.

The Fire Department has not levied
any general taxes but does use fee
recovery mechanisms for mitigation.

For example, CUPA fees for future
HazMat incident prevention and
mitigation, or weed abatement
activities for which non-compliant
parcels are assessed on property tax
bills.

User Fees for Water, Sewer,
Gas or Electric Services
Yes Not based on the City’s current
impact fees/nexus studies.

Stormwater Utility Fee No No
Incur Debt through General
Obligation Bonds
No, voter approval required No
Incur Debt through Special
Tax Bonds
No, voter approval required No
Incur Debt through Private
Activity Bonds
No No
Withhold Public Expenditures
in Hazard-Prone Areas
Yes No
State Funding Programs Yes No
Development Impact Fees for
Homebuyers or Developers
Yes, nexus study required No
Public or Private Partnership
Funding Sources
No No
Other Funding Sources Yes Yes, storm and public facilities; however, limited resources.

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Table 7: Staffing Capabilities
Staffing Capability Have Capability? Is staffing adequate to enforce regulations?
Is staff trained on
natural hazards
and mitigation?
Chief Building Official  Yes
 Full time
 Building Division
No Yes
Parks and Recreation
Director
 Yes
 Full time
 Parks and Recreation
No No
Emergency Manager  Yes
 Full time
 Emergency Services
No Yes
Community Planner  Yes
 Full time
 Community
Development
Department
No No
Civil Engineer  Yes
 Full time
 Engineering within
Public Works,
Community
Development
Department, Silicon
Valley Power, Water &
Sewer Utilities
No Yes
Engineers or
professionals
trained in building or
infrastructure
construction practices
 Yes
 Full time
 DPW, Community
Development
Department, Silicon
Valley Power, Water &
Sewer Utilities
Yes, CDD-Building Yes
Planners or engineers
with knowledge of land
development and land
management practices
 Yes
 Full time
 DPW, Community
Development
Department, Silicon
Valley Power, Water &
Sewer Utilities
Unknown Yes
Planners or engineers
with an understanding
of natural hazards
 Yes
 Full time
 DPW, Community
Development
Department, Silicon
Valley Power, Water &
Sewer Utilities
Yes, CDD-Building Yes
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Staffing Capability Have Capability? Is staffing adequate to enforce regulations?
Is staff trained on
natural hazards
and mitigation?
Surveyors  Yes
 Full time
 Land Surveyor, DPW
No No
GIS Coordinator or
personnel skilled or
trained in GIS
applications
 Yes
 Full time
 Contracted, IT
Department for
enterprise GIS and
applications along with
the departmental
SMEs; also includes
staff trained in DPW,
Silicon Valley Power,
Water & Sewer
Utilities
Unknown No
Public Works Director  Yes
 Full time
 Public Works
Department
No Yes
Fire Chief  Yes
 Full time
 Fire Department
Yes Yes
Environmental Director  No environmental
director but PW
handles some
components including
Waste collection,
Stormwater programs,
closed Landfill
Operations &
Maintenance.
 Water and Sewer
utilities oversees
Water Distribution
System CIP and
Operation and
Maintenance, supply,
Water quality, Water
Conservation,
Recycled water,
Sewer collections
System and their
Operations and
maintenance, Fat, Oil
and Grease, PreTreatment program.

No No
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Staffing Capability Have Capability? Is staffing adequate to enforce regulations?
Is staff trained on
natural hazards
and mitigation?
Staff with training in
benefit/cost analysis
 Yes
 Full time
 Finance/Director
Yes No
Scientist familiar with
natural hazards in local
area
No N/A N/A
Table 8: Administrative and Technical Capabilities
Administrative or
Technical Capability
Have
Capability?
Has the capability been used to assess or mitigate risk in the past? If yes, what type of hazard event?
Maintenance
programs to reduce
risk
Yes The City of Santa Clara needs to comply with National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NDPES)
permit requirements, which aim to minimize the amount or pollutants that get into our waterways via storm drains. To accomplish this, the City of Santa Clara takes the following measures:
 More frequent street sweeping in industrial zones
 Early sweeping schedule in industrial zones to avoid
parked cars that limit access to the curbside
 Educational outreach
 Adoption of Single-Use Carryout Bag and Polystyrene
Foam Food Service Ware Ordinances
 Installation of full trash capture devices in storm drain inlets
 Support community litter abatement efforts through
the Adopt-a-Spot Program
Also, the City has programs related to Tree Maintenance, Storm Drain System Maintenance in addition to regular
street sweeping.

Mutual aid
agreements
Yes The Police & Fire Departments are part of the Countywide mutual aid plan that requires resource sharing for
unplanned events. Electric Utility has mutual aid through California Utilities Emergency Association.

Hazard data and
information
Yes Flood maps, water & sewer maps, tree maps, power line maps.

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Administrative or
Technical Capability
Have
Capability?
Has the capability been used to assess or mitigate risk in the past? If yes, what type of hazard event?
Hazard analysis or
GIS software
Yes The City’s Enterprise GIS is composed of dozens of data layers from the core departments engaged with hazard
mitigation such as Public Works, Community Development, Fire, Police, Office of Emergency Services, Silicon Valley Power, and Water & Sewer. Data stored in the Enterprise GIS is crucial to hazard mitigation efforts (i.e., floods, fires & public safety initiatives). For example, the Enterprise GIS has been used to support the fire department in their
planning for hazard mitigation around fires at a
manufacturing plant where unsafe chemicals are stored.

Grant writing Yes The grant writer is contracted with Townsend Public Affairs (TPA) for grant opportunities including Fire, Police, DPW, IT, Parks & Rec, SVP, Water & Sewer Utilities.

Does your jurisdiction
have any established
warning systems or
services for hazard
events?
Yes AlertSCC is the County of Santa Clara’s official emergency alert and warning system and is used by the City of Santa Clara.

Table 9: National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) Compliance Topic Response
What department in your jurisdiction is
responsible for floodplain management?
Community Development
Who acts as your jurisdiction’s floodplain
administrator?
Director of Community Development
Is the floodplain administrator or NFIP
Coordinator certified?
No
Is floodplain management an auxiliary
function in your jurisdiction?
No
What is the date of adoption of your flood
damage prevention ordinance?
Floodplain Management Ordinance 2060 was
adopted by City Council on June 6, 2023.

Do floodplain development regulations meet
or exceed FEMA or state minimum
requirements? If regulations exceed
requirements, in what ways?
Yes, they meet the minimum requirements.

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Topic Response
How are the substantial
improvement/substantial damage provisions
implemented?
Both the Floodplain Administrator and Building
Official are authorized to make substantial
improvement/substantial damage determinations.

The Floodplain Administrator may further
designate this duty to other employees, as
necessary. The Floodplain Administrator and
Building Official are responsible for working
together to assess damaged buildings located in
flood hazard areas and inform owners of the
requirement to obtain permits for repairs. The
Floodplain Administrator is responsible for
reviewing all development permits where
proposed development is located in flood hazard
areas. All permits shall be maintained and
permanently kept and made available for public
inspection as necessary.

Provide an explanation of the permitting
process for development within the floodplain.

See City code Title 15, Chapter 15.45.

Does your floodplain management program
meet or exceed minimum requirements?
Yes, Floodplain Management Ordinance 2060
was adopted by City Council on June 6, 2023.

When did your jurisdiction enter the NFIP? January 20, 1999 Is your jurisdiction in good standing with the
NFIP?
Yes
Are the jurisdiction’s Flood Insurance Rate
Maps (FIRMs) digital, paper, or both?
Digital
Adopted effective FIRMs 5/18/2009
Explanation of NFIP administration services
within your jurisdiction.

The Building Permit review process includes
review of all SFHA areas to provide proper
mitigations and requirements prior to issuance of
a Building Permit.

Plans are clearly marked and noted when located
within a designated floodplain and specific
requirements are detailed.

Barriers to running an effective NFIP program
in your jurisdiction.

N/A
When was the most recent Community
Assistance Visit (CAV) or Community
Assistance Contact (CAC)?
2012
Is a CAV or CAC scheduled or needed? Unknown
Does your jurisdiction have any outstanding
NFIP compliance violations that need to be
addressed?
No
Do your flood hazard maps adequately
address the flood risk within your jurisdiction?
Yes
Does your floodplain management staff need
any assistance or training to support its
floodplain management program?
Yes
Does your jurisdiction participate in the
Community Rating System (CRS)?
Yes
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Topic Response
How many structures are exposed to flood risk
within your jurisdiction?
Unknown
How many flood insurance policies are in
force in your jurisdiction?
 What is the insurance in force?
 What is the premium in force?
683 policies in force
$222,286,800 insurance in force
$643,583 premium in force
Areas of flood risk with limited NFIP policy
coverage.

Unknown
How many total loss claims have been filed in
your jurisdiction?
 How many claims were closed without
payment or are still open?
 What is the total amount of paid claims?
 How many claims were for substantial
damage?
 29 total loss claims have been filed
 $264,753 total payments for losses
How NFIP compliance will be continued during
the next 5 years.
 Adoption of an updated Floodplain
Management Code
 The Building Permit review process includes
review of all SFHA areas to provide proper
mitigations and requirements prior to issuance
of a Building Permit.
 Floodplain mapping updates.
 Ongoing communication to property owners
who are interested in improving properties in
SFHA to provide updated information.

Table 10: Education and Outreach Capabilities
Education or Outreach
Capability Response
How does the personnel,
program, or organization
relate to disaster
resilience and
mitigation?
Could the personnel,
program, or
organization help
implement future
mitigation activities?
Does your jurisdiction have
a Public Information Officer
or Communications Office?
Yes Works in coordination with
the EOC in any relevant
resiliency and mitigation
messaging
Yes
Does your jurisdiction have
personnel skilled or trained
in website development?
Yes Works in coordination with
the EOC in any relevant
resiliency and mitigation
messaging
Yes
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Education or Outreach
Capability Response
How does the personnel,
program, or organization
relate to disaster
resilience and
mitigation?
Could the personnel,
program, or
organization help
implement future
mitigation activities?
Does your jurisdiction have
hazard mitigation
information available on
your website?
Yes The Fire Department has
an emergency
preparedness webpage
that includes links to
various resources, as well
as a copy of the current
local hazard mitigation
plan.

Yes
Does your jurisdiction
utilize social media for
hazard mitigation education
and outreach?
Yes Works in coordination with
the EOC in any relevant
resiliency and mitigation
messaging using Twitter,
Facebook and NextDoor
Yes
Does your jurisdiction have
any citizen boards or
commissions that address
issues related to hazard
mitigation?
No N/A No
Does your jurisdiction have
any ongoing public
education or information
programs that could be
used to communicate
hazard-related information?
Yes Under the CRS program,
ongoing public education
continues through social
media on topics related to
storm preparedness,
earthquake readiness, and
other hazards
Yes
Does your jurisdiction have
local citizen groups or
nonprofit organizations
focused on environmental
protection, emergency
preparedness, and/or
underserved populations?
Yes Training people in
advance who can be
leaders in their own
communities as CERT
volunteers assists with the
City’s mitigation
capabilities. We have the
ability to swear in CERTs
as Disaster Service
Workers (DSWs) if needed
in a disaster. We have
also increased the number
of City staff members in
various departments to
have the ability to swear in
emergency DSWs.

Yes
Does your jurisdiction have
natural disaster or safety
related school programs?
Yes Safe Routes to School;
emergency preparedness
& fire safety outreach to
schools
Yes
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Education or Outreach
Capability Response
How does the personnel,
program, or organization
relate to disaster
resilience and
mitigation?
Could the personnel,
program, or
organization help
implement future
mitigation activities?
Does your jurisdiction have
public/private partnership
initiatives addressing
disaster-related issues
Yes Office of Emergency
Services partnership with
the County Office of
Emergency Management,
County Climate
Collaborative, Silicon
Valley Urban Forest
Alliance and Valley Water
Yes
Table 11: Community Classifications
Participating? Classification Date
Classified
Community Rating System Yes 7 10/1/2019
Building Code Effectiveness Grading
Schedule
No - N/A
Insurance Services Office (ISO) Fire Rating Yes 2 2021
National Weather Service StormReady
Program®
No N/A N/A
Firewise USA® Program No N/A N/A
Table 12: Development and Permitting Capabilities
Development or Permitting Capability Response
Does your jurisdiction issue development
permits?
 If no, who does? If yes, which department?
Yes
Community Development
Does your jurisdiction have the ability to track
permits by hazard area?
Yes
Does your jurisdiction have a buildable lands
inventory?
Yes
Table 13: Adaptive Capacity for Climate Change
Adaptive Capacity Assessment Question Jurisdiction Rating Technical Capacity
Jurisdiction-level understanding of potential climate change impacts Medium
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Adaptive Capacity Assessment Question Jurisdiction Rating Comment: None provided
Jurisdiction-level monitoring of climate change impacts Medium Comment: Sea level rise is expected to have minimal impacts to Santa Clara properties.

Technical resources to assess proposed strategies for feasibility and externalities High
Comment: None provided
Jurisdiction-level capacity for development of greenhouse gas emissions inventory Medium
Comment: Climate Action Plan contains a comprehensive inventory, and the update of the Climate Action Plan in the next 1-3 years will include an inventory update.

Capital planning and land use decisions informed by potential climate impacts High
Comment: General Plan principles, including the Climate Action Plan criteria, consider climate implications.

Participation in regional groups addressing climate risks Medium Comment: Staff participates in regular regional climate change meetings as time permits.

Implementation Capacity
Clear authority/mandate to consider climate change impacts during public decision-making processes High
Comment: The Climate Action Plan is incorporated into the General Plan and is considered as part of the decision-making process.

Identified strategies for greenhouse gas mitigation efforts High Comment: The Climate Action Plan (CAP) addresses statewide GHG reduction goals through 2020, and the City updated the CAP in 2022 to address the GHG reductions goals for 2030 and 2050.

Identified strategies for adaptation to impacts Medium
Comment: The initiatives and strategies addressed across all departments through CAP.

Champions for climate action in local government departments Medium Comment: Sustainability manager was hired in 2020.

Political support for implementing climate change adaptation strategies Medium
Comment: Sustainability is continually gaining additional support in the community and with the Council.

Financial resources devoted to climate change adaptation Medium Comment: None provided.

Local authority over sectors likely to be negative impacted Medium Comment: None provided.

Public Capacity
Local residents’ knowledge of and understanding of climate risk Medium Comment: Some members are highly educated. More City outreach could contribute to overall knowledge base.

Local residents’ support of adaptation efforts Medium
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Adaptive Capacity Assessment Question Jurisdiction Rating Comment: Climate adaptation is a concept that has not yet been discussed widely and is often only associated with natural disaster response, not with the need for climate adaptation. Therefore, support for adaptation will depend on regional and statewide support for tying the public awareness about disaster response to the need for climate adaptation measures and funding as a strategy in natural disaster relief.

Local residents’ capacity to adapt to climate impacts High Comment: Lower income residents have expressed concerns about access and implementation of climate adaptation strategies at the individual level.

Local economy current capacity to adapt to climate impacts High Comment: In order to implement climate adaptation elements, cities will need to be creative in folding initiatives into existing CIP projects and seeking grant and community partnership approaches to funding.

Local ecosystems capacity to adapt to climate impacts Medium Comment: Valley Water is lead on riparian corridors and is addressing ecosystem health from that perspective. Additionally, Santa Clara is part of the Silicon Valley Urban Forest Alliance to address tree-related urban ecosystems.

1.4.3. Opportunities to Expand Upon and Improve Existing Capabilities The hazard mitigation planning process presented the opportunity for the community to discuss and evaluate their current capabilities however, building mitigation capabilities is an ongoing process. New capabilities can be added which will support mitigation. Current capabilities can also be enhanced to actively support mitigation and reduce risk. Significant efforts have been made to increase the capabilities of jurisdictions across the OA. By participating in this plan update, each community is reinforcing their support for mitigation and understanding of the capabilities they need to successfully implement mitigation measures. Actions that can expand and improve existing authorities, plans, policies, and resources for mitigation include:
 Budgeting and passing policies and procedures for mitigation actions.  Adopting and implementing stricter mitigation regulations.  Approving the training of staff for mitigation activities.  Approving mitigation updates to existing plans as new needs are recognized.  Continuing to update plans as necessary to ensure they are current and reflect the needs of the community or special district.
 Further developing warning systems and messaging.
 Creating and implementing additional public education and outreach offerings and increasing the volume of translated materials.
 Ensuring grant opportunities are capitalized upon to meet mitigation goals.

Each type of the four FEMA-identified capabilities were evaluated, in addition to OA-priority capabilities like adaptive capacity. Gaps and limitations, if any, are discussed in the tables above. Additional jurisdiction-specific opportunities to expand on and improve capabilities for reducing risk include:
 Continue to participate in the Community Rating System and identify additional actions to both reduce flood risk and reduce flood insurance premiums.

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 Support vulnerable populations’ ability to adapt to climate change, including lower income residents.
 Actively identify and utilize a variety of funding sources for mitigation grants including capital improvement funds, grants, and community partnerships
 Support public education and outreach on climate adaptation and climate risk.  Incorporate considerations of natural hazards including climate change into the next Urban Water Management Plan update.
 Update the Climate Action Plan and incorporate additional data and actions related to hazard mitigation for those hazards influenced by climate change.  Since the last update, multiple new grant programs that support mitigation measures have been established. FEMA’s annual BRIC grant program funds a variety of mitigation actions, including infrastructure projects, nature-based solutions, climate adaptation, hazard resistant building codes, and projects benefitting disadvantaged communities.

1.5. Integration with Other Planning Initiatives
This section describes the process for integrating the hazard mitigation plan into local planning mechanisms.

1.5.1. Existing Integration
The following plans and programs currently integrate the goals, risk assessment and/or recommendations of the 2017 hazard mitigation plan:
 General Plan: The City of Santa Clara incorporates relevant mitigation measures into the policies and actions of the General Plan, including Safety Policy 5.10.5-P1, which calls for the LHMP to be the primary guide for disaster preparedness in the City. It addresses natural disasters such as earthquake, landslide, wildfire, and flooding.
 Climate Action Plan: Integrated into the General Plan, the CAP identifies steps for the City to take in its own operations and in review/approval of new development to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. At the time of the next update, information obtained in the update of the hazard mitigation plan will be integrated into the Climate Action Plan as appropriate.  Public engagement, education, and outreach: The City of Santa Clara engages the public through various media and outreach platforms on a broad range of hazard, resiliency, and adaptation messages. Examples include winter preparedness during the fall through the City’s newsletter and social media, ongoing social media and TV news stories about access to warming and cooling centers, and a booth with details about flood preparedness at the Art & Wine festival.

The City continues CRS activities program for public information (PPI) in collaboration with Valley Water. Water and Sewer Department booth at various City events like Earth Day/Arbor Day, Art and Wine Festivals, and parades for the engagement and outreach of drought and water conservation. The City also partners with SFPUC and Valley Water for various online classes on planting and succulents, all related to Water conservation.  Building and/or zoning codes: The City of Santa Clara regularly updates the California Title 24 Building Codes on the same triennial cycle that the State employs. Currently, the 2022 California Building Codes with local amendments have been adopted and registered with the State and were effective January 1, 2023. In addition, the City has adopted the revised 2023 City of Santa Clara Reach Code which has been accepted by the California Energy Commission and is in full effect as of January 1, 2023.

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 Floodplain management program and/or National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP): The City’s Floodplain Management Regulations Ordinance will be updated with Federal FEMA requirements and coordinate with adopted Building Code regulations was adopted by City Council on June 6, 2023.
 Community Rating System (CRS) program: The City of Santa Clara participates in the CRS program and currently has a Class 7 rating which provides 15% discount on all Flood Insurance policies in special flood hazard area.

1.5.2. Opportunities for Future Integration
Mitigation has already been integrated into many of the City of Santa Clara’s planning mechanisms.

The update timeline for the majority of them do not align well with the hazard mitigation plan update process. However, if future opportunities become available, this plan may be incorporated into additional planning mechanisms. The following plans do provide an opportunity for future integration:
 Urban Stormwater Management Plan: The next update of the Urban Stormwater Management Plan is due in 2025. Information from the MJHMP on related hazards, like flooding, and mitigation goals/actions can be incorporated into this plan.
 Citywide Parks & Recreation Master Plan: The Parks & Recreation Department intends to hire a consultant in 2023 to develop this plan. The city can evaluate consistency with the hazard mitigation plan and incorporate recommendations as needed.

The City’s Local Planning Team, including the Planners, will be responsible for incorporating this MJHMP into other planning mechanisms. Where appropriate, this may include sharing the plan with contractor teams working on other plan updates.

1.6. Jurisdiction-Specific Natural Hazard Event History Table 174 lists all past occurrences of natural hazards within the jurisdiction.

Table 14: Natural Hazard Events
Type of Event FEMA Disaster #
(if applicable)
Date Preliminary
Damage Assessment
Winter Storms DR-4301
DR-4308
02/14/,2017
04/012017
Emergency Protective
Measures & Electric
Utility Repair
Drought N/A 07/2021–04/2023 15% Water cut back
and other Water
Shortage Contingency
Stage 2 Plan
implementation to
reduce water
consumption
Heat and Cold Events N/A Year Round Severity of extreme temperature events
create the need for
warming and cooling
center operations.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 31
Type of Event FEMA Disaster #
(if applicable)
Date Preliminary
Damage Assessment
Wildfire Smoke/Air
Quality
N/A Seasonal Communities staying
indoors; elderly and
AFN; downed trees &
power lines
Storm Impacts N/A Seasonal Public Works,
Water/Sewer, & SVP:
downed trees & power
lines

1.7. Jurisdiction-Specific Vulnerabilities
 Hazus earthquake models show significant risk to Santa Clara. Estimates for 100-year probabilistic earthquake show an estimated $2.9 million in damages, or 9.07% of the total replacement value in the city. This was the 4th highest percentage in the OA. Santa Clara had the second highest loss ratio for the San Andreas and Calaveras fault scenarios. Moderate to very high liquefaction potential exists across the city, with higher potential along the creeks.  Concerns regarding earthquakes include communications disruptions, limited or total loss of access to damaged sites, damaged roads may limit emergency vehicle access, availability of personnel, long-term staffing issues (rotation/relief), ALERTSCC may be unusable due to loss of power and/or communications, records retrieval maybe affected by cloud-based or internet disruptions. There are a number of older structures built before modern building codes. Aging infrastructure and deferred maintenance of emergency response fire stations could be significantly damaged as a result of a major earthquake, resulting in potential emergency response apparatus being unable to respond to emergencies. Similar vulnerabilities are expected with landslides, inclement weather, and wildfire.
 Hazus also shows that Santa Clara has very high risk to flooding. 16,644 residents (13% of the total population) are in the 1% SFHA which is the 2nd highest percentage in the OA. 35,182 residents (27.57%) are in the 0.2% floodplain, which is the highest percentage in the OA.

Flooding may cause communications failure, mass casualties, inability to respond, lack of PD resources for search/rescue efforts, employees’ ability to respond to PD to provide emergency services, long-term staffing issues (rotation/relief), ALERTSCC may be unusable due to water damage, loss of power and/or communications, records retrieval maybe affected by cloudbased/internet disruptions, and CLETS messaging maybe affected by communications disruptions. The Santa Clara Fire Department does not have any rescue boat resources and would rely on mutual aid from San Jose; however, those resources would likely not be available due to San Jose also being significantly impacted. This would require resource requests from a greater distance which would delay boat-based rescue response if needed.  Several potential storm water system improvements have been identified to reduce flood risk, including assessment and repair of pump station outfalls, slide gate replacements at pump stations, curb and gutter repairs, improvements at Bowers Avenue Storm Drain pump station, and other storm drain improvement projects identified in the city’s storm drain master plan.  Wildfire hazard risk is lower than most cities in the OA. 113 structures valued near $4 million and 325 people are at risk. Small areas of risk are found in riparian areas near creeks and also in the open space closer to the bay. Weed and other vegetation management in these areas can keep wildfire risk low. Wildfires in the region could contribute to poor air quality in Santa Clara, which can be harmful to health, particularly for those with respiratory or other underlying health conditions. Public information regarding these health risks should be provided regularly. Climate change may increase the intensity and/or frequency of drought and extreme heat, which contribute to greater wildfire risk.

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 Over 50,000 people are potentially at risk to dam failure in Santa Clara. $12.5 billion in structural value is within dam inundation areas from the J Lenihan Dam. Access to adequate evacuation routes is critical for residents to leave areas that may be impacted by a dam failure.  Santa Clara has low risk to landslide. 614 people (0.48% of the total city population) are withing potential landslide areas, primarily along creek banks. Structures in these areas are valued at $148 million. The stream channel may experience bank erosion or other slope instability during or immediately following flood or heavy rain events. Due to limited vulnerability and potential mitigation measures, the City has selected to omit this hazard from further consideration.  Drought is a hazard that has similar conditions over broad areas. It is anticipated that the impacts of drought will be fairly consistent across the OA. Drought impacts can make vegetation more vulnerable to disease and wildfire. Extended drought may necessitate limits on landscape irrigation or higher costs for irrigation, which can have economic impacts. Although agriculture is not a primary economic sector in the OA, drought can have severe negative impacts on growth of crops and gardens. A severe drought may result in an increase of casualties. There will be increased mutual aid requests statewide for wildfire response, taxing Santa Clara resources. Fire Department training becomes limited due to water restrictions, increasing the risk to responders.

Drought conditions may become more frequent or more intense in the future due to climate change, requiring increased attention to maintaining an adequate water supply for the city. Water conservation and drought-tolerant landscaping can reduce risk by decreasing demand for water.  Impacts from inclement weather such as heavy rain, hail, and wind are likely to be very similar across the OA. Individual events may impact only limited areas, but the entire OA is at risk to similar conditions. Heavy rain may cause localized flooding on roadways and low-lying areas, which may disrupt transportation for the general public and can also delay emergency response.

Heavy rain can also have cascading impacts on landslide potential or strain the capacity of dams.

High winds can disrupt power, communication, and other services and cause damage to structures. Extreme heat or cold can be harmful to health, particularly those with inadequate housing with adequate warming and cooling systems. Those with underlying health conditions, access and functional needs, people over 65, and others may be particularly impacted by severe weather. People who work outdoors are also more at risk. Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and severity of severe weather events, including extreme heat, drought, and heavy rain.
 Extreme cold events are infrequent and expected to occur less in the future due to warming trends associated with climate change. Impacts to critical facilities, infrastructure, and other assets are minimal. Primary concerns associated with extreme cold are potential health impacts to vulnerable populations such as unhoused individuals, outdoor workers, or individuals without adequate heat in their homes.
 Trees can help cool surfaces and reduce the urban heat island effect in times of extreme heat.

However, high wind events can lead to damage from falling trees or tree limbs. Proper maintenance, watering, and pruning are needed to keep trees healthy to avoid potential damage.  Santa Clara does not have any assets directly at risk to tsunami. Some regional transportation or utility services may have indirect impacts on residents if disrupted by a tsunami. The mapped evacuation area for tsunami comes close to Hwy 237, a primary transportation route on the north end of Santa Clara. Although it is not expected, a tsunami could cause closure or other obstruction on this road or bridges in this area.
 Potential communication disruptions and power outages could affect technology and, employees’ ability to respond from home. Records retrieval may also be affected by cloud-based or internet disruptions.

Climate Change Considerations:

Anticipated changes in climate may increase the number of occurrences, length or intensity in hazards such as extreme heat or drought, as indicated by the CMRA tool. Both drought and extreme heat Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 33
conditions contribute to increased risk of wildfire, as lack of precipitation and high temperatures both contribute to vegetation becoming dry and more susceptible to quick ignition and faster fire spread.

Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can also reduce snowpack, and changes in runoff from snowpack may result in changes to water supplies throughout the region. Climate change may also impact the future frequency or severity of severe weather such as heavy rain and subsequent risk of flooding. Although CMRA does not indicate a significant change in the number of precipitation events or overall annual rainfall, it is anticipated that those events may become more extreme, with significant amounts of precipitation occurring during an extreme precipitation event.

Intense rainstorms can result in increased risk of landslides occurrences, so increased heavy rain events driven by climate change may also increase the occurrence of landslides. Loss of vegetation from wildfire reduces slope stability, so an increase in wildfires resulting from climate change may also increase postfire debris flows.

Climate change may lead to frequent fluctuation of water levels retained by dams and may result increased discharges and flooding downstream and possibly overtopping or other design failures following extreme precipitation events.

An in-depth assessment of the possibility of increasing numbers and intensities of windstorms was not available for the OA; however, changes in temperature and extreme weather events may also be accompanied with increases in high wind. Winds can damage utility lines, resulting in power outages and can also contribute to extreme wildfire risk conditions.

Santa Clara will likely experience effects of climate change in relation to drought, extreme heat, heavy rain, high wind, flooding, and dam failure. Wildfire and landslide risk are confined to a relatively small area in Santa Clara. Climate change may impact those conditions but may not significantly increase the potential impacts to the city due to the limited extent. Climate impacts to earthquake hazards are not well understood and not currently believed to have an effect in Santa Clara. Additional details on potential impacts to population, property, critical facilities, the environment, and the economy can be found in Volume 1, Section 12.

Repetitive loss records are as follows:
 Number of Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)-identified Repetitive-Loss Properties (RL): 0
 Number of FEMA-identified Severe-Repetitive-Loss (SRL) Properties: 0  Number of RL Properties or SRL Properties that have been mitigated: 0

1.7.1. Social Vulnerability
Santa Clara residents have moderate to moderately high social vulnerability, as shown in Figure 113.

Several characteristics among the population may make efforts to recover from the impacts of natural hazards more difficult for many residents. Housing Type and Transportation characteristics are a major influencing factor in the overall high social vulnerability scores, as well as a high percentage of racial and ethnic minority populations in the city. Household characteristics and socioeconomic status also contribute to overall vulnerability, although to a lesser extent. The city will have to take additional steps to meet the specific needs of these vulnerable populations.

U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts reports that 47% of Santa Clara residents are Asian, and 15.3% are Hispanic. 45% are foreign born and 55% primarily speak a language other than English at home. Cultural or language barriers may limit their access to information regarding hazard risks and post-disaster relief.

4.6% of individuals under 65 have a disability. These individuals may also have mobility limitations that increase their risks from severe weather and other hazards, and they may depend on others for medical care and other day-to-day assistance. 8% of the population have an income below the poverty level.

Those with lower incomes may be more likely to live in areas of poorly maintained or aging housing and Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 34
infrastructure. Older homes may be more susceptible to damage from earthquake, severe weather, or flooding. Individuals with fewer financial resources have less capacity to recover from disaster losses and are less able to secure temporary housing if needed.

Heavy rain, wind, extreme heat or cold, and drought can occur throughout the city, so all vulnerable populations could potentially experience greater impacts from those hazards. Earthquake and liquefaction risk and flood risk are also high throughout the city and could potentially impact all vulnerable populations.

Landslide susceptibility is minimal in Santa Clara and not a high concern for vulnerable populations.

Wildfire hazard is also limited in Santa Clara, but poor air quality from wildfires in nearby jurisdictions could contribute to health consequences for vulnerable populations such as children or people over age 65, outdoor workers, or those with respiratory or other chronic health conditions.

Figure 4: Santa Clara City Social Vulnerability
The Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool (CEJST) in Figure 114 identifies census tracts that are overburdened and underserved. One tract in Santa Clara meets the thresholds for disadvantaged communities. Linguistic isolation, percentage of individuals with less than a high school diploma, high flood risk, exposure to air pollutants, and proximity to superfund and hazardous waste sites are among the factors contributing to Santa Clara’s disadvantaged status.

Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 35
Figure 5: CEJST Disadvantaged Communities in Santa Clara City

1.8. Hazard Risk Index
Table 175 presents the hazards of concern from highest risk index number to lowest, as assigned by the City of Santa Clara.

Table 15: Hazard Risk Index
Hazard Probability Life Impact Property
Impact
Percentage
of Area
Impacted
Maximum
Probable
Extent
Earthquake Highly Likely Catastrophic Catastrophic Extensive Major Flood Likely Critical Critical Significant Moderate
Dam/Levee
Failure
Occasional Critical Critical Extensive Major
Heavy Rain Highly Likely Limited Limited Significant Moderate High Wind Likely Limited Limited Significant Moderate
Extreme Heat Likely Limited Limited Significant Moderate Extreme Cold Likely Limited Limited Significant Moderate Drought Highly Likely Limited Minor Significant Moderate Climate Change Likely Limited Limited Significant Moderate Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 36
Hazard Probability Life Impact Property
Impact
Percentage
of Area
Impacted
Maximum
Probable
Extent
Wildfire/Smoke/Air
Quality
Likely Limited Limited Minimal Moderate
Table 16: Comparison of Santa Clara City Hazard Risk Scores with Operational Area (OA) Risk
Score
EarthquakeDam/Levee
Failure
Heavy
Rain
High
Wind
Extreme
Heat Wildfire Drought Flood Landslide Tsunami Climate Change Santa
Clara
3 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.45 2 0 0.35 1.4
OA 2.24 1.19 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.68 1.21 0.90 0.36 0.02 1.13

1.9. Future Needs to Better Understand Risk and
Vulnerability
Capabilities needed to better understand risk include frequent testing of PD and Fire communication systems in adverse conditions, with additional testing on backup communication abilities. As well as staffing modules to forecast long-term catastrophic relief or rotation, training PD personnel on the ICS Command Structure, and ensuring that historical records can be retrieved during catastrophic events.

1.10. Status of Previous Plan Actions
Participants were asked to report the status of their mitigation actions listed in the previous plan as a part of this plan update. Where further information isn’t provided, the answers are defined as follows:
 Completed – work on this action is totally complete.
 Completed and ongoing – work on this action is complete; however, it is an ongoing project that will continue to be implemented. An example is a public outreach campaign that was created and will continue to be implemented.
 In progress – work on this action has begun and is in progress, but the action is not yet complete.  Retain – work on this action has not begun yet, the action is still relevant, and it should be in the 2023 MJHMP.
 No longer relevant – Action item is no longer relevant due to reduce or eliminated risk, it no longer being feasible, there has been a change in jurisdictional or organizational priorities, or another reason as stated.

Unless specifically requested otherwise, only those actions listed as “retain” are incorporated into the 2023 action plan.

Table 17: Status of Action Items from the 2017 MJHMP
Action
Item
Number*
Action Item Description Hazard(s)
Mitigated
Current Status and Comments
SC-1 Where appropriate, support
retrofitting, purchase, or
relocation of structures in
All Hazards In progress. The City of Santa
Clara permits retrofits of existing
structures, including flood-
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 37
Action
Item
Number*
Action Item Description Hazard(s)
Mitigated
Current Status and Comments
hazard-prone areas to prevent
future structure damage. Give
priority to properties with
exposure to repetitive losses
proofing, consistent with the
building code. In addition, the City
is supportive of other agencies,
including the Santa Clara Valley
Water District (Valley Water), in
their efforts to remove structures
from hazard-prone areas. OES will
support Community
Development’s lead on this effort
and assist with identifying
applicable funding.

SC-2 Continue to support the
Planning Area-wide actions
identified in this plan
All Hazards In progress. This objective is reworded for clarity. OES/FIRE will continue to support hazard
mitigation planning actions in the
City.

SC-3 Actively participate in the plan
maintenance strategy identified
in this plan
All Hazards In progress. OES will continue to
coordinate the maintenance
strategy identified in this plan.

SC-4 Consider participation in
incentive-based programs such
as Tree City and Storm Ready
All Hazards In progress. The City of Santa
Clara has been recognized as a
Tree City USA for the past 36
years running. The City updated
our Trees and Shrubs Ordinance
in 2021. Although the City
participates extensively in storm
readiness, it is not currently an
official Storm Ready City. Pursuing
an official Storm Ready
designation is not a priority at this
time as this would require
resources that exceed the City’s
current capacity such as a 24-hour
Emergency Operations Center and
trained “severe weather spotters.”
The City leverages working
relationships with the National
Weather Service and the County
Office of Emergency Management
to maintain situational awareness
of the weather and messages the
community through the City’s
communications channels with
severe weather notices and
preparedness information.

SC-5 Maintain good standing under
the National Flood Insurance
Program by implementing
programs that meet or exceed
the minimum NFIP
Flood In progress. The City of Santa
Clara participates in the Federal
Emergency Management
Agency’s (FEMA’s) Community
Rating System (CRS). CRS is a
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 38
Action
Item
Number*
Action Item Description Hazard(s)
Mitigated
Current Status and Comments
requirements. Such programs
include enforcing an updated,
adopted flood damage
prevention ordinance,
participating in floodplain
mapping updates, and
providing public assistance and
information on floodplain
requirements and impacts.

Continue participating in the
Santa Clara County
Multijurisdictional Program for
Public Information.
program through which FEMA
rewards communities that perform
floodplain management activities
above and beyond the minimum
requirements of the NFIP. The City
has a CRS class 7 rating, so
residents and businesses can
receive a 15% discount in
insurance premiums for properties
in Special Flood Hazard Areas and
a 5% discount in insurance
premiums for properties outside
Special Flood Hazard Areas.

The City maintains its participation
in NFIP, CRS and PPI. The City
regularly coordinates with other
Santa Clara County communities
for the annual PPI evaluation. The
City’s 5-year cycle visit for CRS is
scheduled for November 2023.

The City’s updated Floodplain
Management Regulations
ordinance was adopted by Council
on June 6, 2023.

SC-6 Integrate the Hazard Mitigation
Plan into other plans,
programs, or resources that
dictate land use or
redevelopment, such as the
General Plan, Climate Action
Plan, Zoning Ordinance,
Building Code, etc.

All Hazards In progress. The City of Santa
Clara has incorporated the HMP
into the City’s General Plan
through its Safety Goals and
Policies. In addition, the Adopted
2022 CAP Update will incorporate
adaptation and resilience
measures into the CAP’s
Community Resilience and Wellbeing strategy. At the end of 2021, the City Council adopted updated
Reach Codes and it cleared the
regulatory review in June 2022.

The City has adopted the 2022
Building Codes and an updated
2023 City of Santa Clara Reach
Code, all of which were effective
January 1, 2023.

SC-7 Based on EOC staffing
capabilities assessment,
ensure that mandated training
is provided to all employees in
SEMS, FEMA ICS-100, ICSAll Hazards In progress. The objective is reworded for clarity. EOC staff
have the goal of completing
training to achieve Level III
credentialing defined by the
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 39
Action
Item
Number*
Action Item Description Hazard(s)
Mitigated
Current Status and Comments
200, IS-700, and IS-800; and
ensure that employees training
records are security
maintained.

California Specialized Training
Institute (CSTI), the training
branch of the California
Governor’s Office of Emergency
Services (Cal OES).

As a short-term objective to this
goal, the City Manager formally
appointed City staff to work in the
EOC as part of a formal training
program that was launched in
September 2019. City staff
assigned to the EOC during the
pandemic response gained
extensive experience that will
assist with credentialing.

SC-8 Based on EOC staffing
capabilities assessment,
ensure that mandated training
is provided to employees who
require advanced knowledge
and application of the ICS, such
as primary and alternate EOC
Section Chiefs and senior field
personnel, to include at least
ICS-300, ICS-400, and the
FEMA Professional
Development Series; and
ensure that employee training
records are securely
maintained.

All Hazards No longer relevant. This objective
was deleted and integrated into
SC-7 and SC-9.

SC-9 Based on EOC staffing
capabilities assessment,
ensure that all Fire and Police
Department staff who may be
assigned the role of incident
commander at an
emergency/disaster scene have
received incident Commander
training; and ensure that
employee training records are
securely maintained.

All Hazards In progress. The Fire Department
is training Captains and above to
the Incident Command System
(ICS)-300 level and Battalion
Chiefs and above to the ICS-400
level. The Police Department is
training Lieutenants and above to
the ICS-300 level and Captains
and above to the ICS-400 level.

SC-10 Monitor local availability of
upcoming training opportunities
for city staff regarding incident
staffing, disaster response, and
recovery
All Hazards In progress. OES monitors local
availability of training opportunities
and notifies applicable EOC staff.

SC-11 Continue to conduct EOC
tabletop exercise(s) to evaluate
capabilities and train
All Hazards In progress. EOC staff gained
practical experience responding to
the COVID-19 pandemic. EOC
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 40
Action
Item
Number*
Action Item Description Hazard(s)
Mitigated
Current Status and Comments
employees in their assigned
EOC role(s)
staff facilitated the regional
simulation cell in the City EOC for
the 2022 Golden Eagle Exercise.

Tabletop exercises will continue
when COVID response activities
are expected to further decrease
beginning in the late fall of 2022.
(In November 2022, the EOC
tabletop exercises resumed.)
Water and Sewer Department
performed the tabletop exercise on
December 8th as a part of the
Emergency Response Plan that
included Water and Sewer
Department staff, crew, engineers,
administrative and department
management staff.

SC-12 Develop and exercise a
Disaster Debris Management
Plan
Dam Failure
Earthquake
Flood
Severe Weather
Retain. Not yet started. However,
the City is further in development
of a disaster debris management
plan based upon the disaster
recovery and reimbursement
process for the 2017 Winter
Storms that concluded in late
2018. The formal plan is a longterm goal.

The County of Santa Clara does
not currently have a formal Debris
Management Plan. Once the
County drafts a debris
management plan with an included
template for use by local
jurisdictions in developing plans
for debris management, the City of
Santa Clara will utilize these
resources to develop a localized
plan.

SC-13 Enhance public education and
awareness of natural and
manmade hazards in the
community and public
understanding of disaster
preparedness, including foreign
language translations
All Hazards In progress. In partnership with the
Santa Clara County Office of
Emergency Management, the City
has distributed disaster
preparedness materials in English,
Spanish, Mandarin, and
Vietnamese. City departments
distribute these materials
throughout City Hall and to the
community, including at fire
stations, the Community
Recreation Center, Teen Center,
Youth Activity Center, Senior
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 41
Action
Item
Number*
Action Item Description Hazard(s)
Mitigated
Current Status and Comments
Center, the Mission Branch,
Central, and Northside Libraries.

The Fire and Police Departments
and City Manager’s Office also
distribute the materials at trainings
and special events.

Even during the unprecedent
challenges posed in 2020 and
2021, the Police Department
continued to be an answering
point for public concerns ranging
from pandemic/shelter in place
questions to police policies and
practices. In addition, the
Fall/Winter Edition of Inside Santa
Clara provides winter
preparedness tips. The Summer
2022 Edition of Inside Santa Clara
was distributed and included a
section dedicated to fire and safety
tips. Other editions of the
magazine and the City’s website
and other communication
channels provide pandemic
outreach materials.
https://www.santaclaraca.gov/ourcity/departments-g-z/publicworks/engineering/floodprotection/flood-safety-tips.

Outreach is also conducted in
other languages, including
Spanish, to promote emergency
preparedness. The City is also
collaborating with the local VOAD
(Voluntary Organizations Active in
Disasters) to provide MyShake
earthquake preparedness
outreach in our community in
multiple languages.

SC-14 Develop improved capabilities
to incorporate GIS technology
by all departments into services
provided to the public and for
use during emergency/disaster
incidents.

Dam Failure
Earthquake
Flood
In progress. This objective is reworded for clarity. The EOC has a GIS-based operating picture and
will continue to add layers for
increased situational awareness
as funding and staff time become
available. Water and Sewer
Utilities is transitioning their Water,
Sewer and Recycled Water plat
maps to GIS version. SVP
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Action
Item
Number*
Action Item Description Hazard(s)
Mitigated
Current Status and Comments
maintains Electric Utility
infrastructure in GIS.

SC-15 Conduct a test of emergency
communications and
information systems
interoperability, to establish
baseline capabilities for
employee call-back,
communications between the
EOC and incident command,
and communications with the
Operational Area and Mutual
Aid resources
All Hazards In progress. Baseline capability
with the AlertSCC application for
employee callback was
established in August 2018. Key
EOC leadership positions may
also be notified through the low
technology option of telephone.
(Confidential wallet cards with
contact information are maintained
and updated regularly for this
option. Communications between
the EOC and Incident Command
are tested regularly during Levi’s
Stadium events. Communications
with the Operational Area and
Mutual Aid resources are
implemented day-to-day with the
Police and Fire Departments. The
Fire Department uses CrewSense
staffing software for enhanced
callback notification of personnel
to their cell phone during large
events that require a recall of
personnel.

The City’s Alert and Notification
Workgroup convened in March
2020 and had been in recess due
to the current COVID-19 pandemic
response. However, during 2022
the workgroup reconvened with
Communications and Police
Departments participating to
coordinate in advance and engage
in practice drills. (Please Note: For
the purposes of emergency
operations, the Communications
Team is defined as all
departmental PIOs or operational
leads.) SVP, in collaboration with
Water and Sewer Utilities, is also
looking into implementing staffing
software to callback utilities crew
and staff.

SC-16 Conduct a gap analysis of the
Santa Clara City
Emergency/Disaster
preparedness and response
program, to include a
All Hazards In progress. A review of plans and
procedures identified the need for
a Severe Weather/Flood Plan to
formalize practices in this area,
and a draft Incident Planning and
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 43
Action
Item
Number*
Action Item Description Hazard(s)
Mitigated
Current Status and Comments
comprehensive review of
employee training requirements
and needs, plans and
procedures, EOC equipment
and staffing capabilities, and
related analysis
Response Guide has been
developed.

The Water/Sewer Department
hired a consultant to complete a
Risk and Resilience Assessment
(RRA) by March 31, 2020, and an
Emergency Response Plan (ERP)
by September 30, 2020, to meet
federal regulations under the
America’s Water Infrastructure Act
(AWIA). The consultant has
completed both RRA and ERP and
conducted a thorough review of all
critical assets and risk assessment
of the water system that involves
all hazards that include natural
hazards, dependency and
proximity threats, offsite threats
and malevolent threats that might
impact water system operations
and engineering systems.

The Department is also performing
once a year tabletop exercise and
update to the ERP for water and
sewer utilities.

The purpose of the RRA and ERP
is to identify City response actions
during an emergency that will
maintain the expected quantity of
water, maintain water treatment,
protect employees, minimize
disruption to the public, preserve
property, and maintain community
trust in the City. The
recommendations by the
consultant will be incorporated into
the department future Capital
Improvements Program (CIPs)
projects.

SC-17 Acquire a mobile Emergency
Operations Center
All Hazards Retain. Acquisition is not yet
started. This continues to be a low
priority in consideration of other
City priorities and available
resources, including from
neighboring jurisdictions.

SC-18 Develop unmanned aerial
vehicle (UAV/drone) capability
for hazard mitigation surveys
and post-disaster damage
Dam Failure
Flood
Earthquake
Severe Weather
In progress. The Fire Department
purchased a UAV and obtained
FAA approvals to operate it within
the City. It is recommended that a
Santa Clara County Multijurisdictional Hazard Mitigation Pla n Volume 2: City of Santa Clara 44
Action
Item
Number*
Action Item Description Hazard(s)
Mitigated
Current Status and Comments
assessments, and develop
policies, procedures, and staff
training guidelines for UAV use.
policy be developed regarding
UAV capability and for the public
to be made aware. The Police
Department is developing
applicable UAV policies for both
the Police and Fire Departments.