Santa Monica City Council
November 18, 2025

19. In addition to the reports referenced above, other publicly available resources and planning tools include:
• California 2022 Extreme Heat Action Plan: Outlines California's all-of-government approach to mitigating the health, economic, cultural, ecological, and social impacts of increasing average temperatures and heat waves.
• 2019 Our County: Los Angeles County Sustainability Plan: A regional plan that outlines what local governments and stakeholders can do to enhance the well-being of every

16 https://smdp.com/2024/09/12/heat-wave-dying-down-after-rare-100-degree-high/, accessed September 16, 2024. 17 Climate-Ready Community Action Item 4 (Prepare for Extreme Heat) in Santa Monica’s 2019 CAAP. 18 Climate-Ready Community Action Item 6 (Climate Resilient Building Design Standards) in Santa Monica’s 2019 CAAP. 19 Climate-Ready Community Action Item 7 (Increase Resilience of Local Energy Infrastructure) in Santa Monica’s 2019 CAAP.

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-12 community in the County while reducing damage to the natural environment and adapting to the changing climate.
• The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): General information on how to prepare for and avoid impacts of extreme heat.
• 2018 California’s Fourth Climate Change Assessment (CA Fourth Assessment): Provides information to build resilience to climate impacts in California, including temperature, wildfire, water, sea level rise, and governance. The Fourth Assessment includes reports for nine regions of the state. Each of these reports provides a summary of relevant climate impacts and adaptation solutions for a region of the state. The Los Angeles Regional report (Hall et al., 2018) was referenced for this analysis and provides an overview of climaterelated risks and adaptation strategies specific to this region. • Cal-Adapt: A web-based data and visualization tools for key climate variables. Originally released in 2011, the current version of Cal-Adapt (version 2.0) was developed and launched as part of California’s Fourth Climate Change Assessment. • Climate Mapping for Resilience and Adaptation (CMRA): A web-based assessment tool that provides projections on climate change for the next several decades at the census-tract level, and its impacts on community assets. Provides information on exposure to five common climate-related hazards–extreme heat, drought, wildfire, flooding and coastal inundation. • Climate Risk & Resilience Portal (ClimRR): Developed by the Center for Climate Resilience and Decision Science at Argonne National Laboratory in cooperation with AT&T and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), this web-based tool provides peerreviewed climate datasets that can be used to run simulations of future climate conditions in support of decision-making and adaptation efforts.

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DROUGHT
Droughts are prolonged periods of abnormally
low rainfall that can lead to shortages in water
supply, increased risk of wildfires, higher volumes
of dust, and damage to habitats and vegetation.

Other climatic characteristics such as high
temperature, high wind, and low relative humidity
contribute to drought conditions.

Drought severity can be measured by factors
including the drought’s duration, intensity, and
geographic extent, as well as regional water supply
demands by humans and vegetation, making it
difficult to conduct comprehensive risk
assessments. The U.S. Drought Monitor (USDM) is
a map released every week showing which areas of
the United States are being impacted by drought,
and how severe is the drought. The system used
includes five categories and colors ranging from
yellow (abnormally dry) to dark red (exceptional
drought) to illustrate the severity of the drought in
different areas. Areas with normal or wet conditions
are shown in white.

Figure 11-4 shows the five-category system of
drought severity and the percentage of California
under each drought stage in 2022.19F
20 Criteria used
to assign an area onto one or other category are also
provided. For example, abnormally dry years have
increased and earlier irrigation needs, whereas
areas in exceptional drought have fallowed land or extremely low agricultural yields.

Southern California is prone to periods of extremely dry conditions due to historically warm temperatures, dry soils, precipitation deficits, and low snowpack in the Sierra Nevada Mountain Ranges. Between 2012 and 2021, California experienced two historic droughts resulting in widespread agricultural, ecological, and wildfire-related impacts (Huang and Swain, 2022). In early 2023, however, intense precipitation as a result of a series of atmospheric rivers, eased the state’s drought concerns. The 2023 wet winter was followed later in the year by rain brought by Tropical Storm Hilary, and in the first week of February 2024, another strong storm system brought additional flooding rains to southern California (see Section 8). The variations in drought conditions in Los Angeles County between January 2000 and September 2024 are shown on Figure 11-5. The County was in some form of drought for 14 of the last 24 years. More than 80% of the County was in an “exceptional drought” (D4) from 2014 to 2017 and about 20% of the County was in a D4 drought in 2021 and 2022. Note that in 2023 and 2024 Los Angeles County is shown as not in a drought condition after California experienced heavy rains due to several atmospheric rivers in late 2022 and early 2023 (see Section 8 for more information on atmospheric rivers).

20 National Integrated Drought Information System: https://www.drought.gov/historicalinformation?dataset=0&selectedDateUSDM=20240910 Figure 11-4: 2022 California Drought,
Five-Category System

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-14 Figure 11-5:

Percent Area of Los Angeles County in U.S. Drought Monitor Categories: 2000-2024 Source: U.S. Drought Monitor: https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/DmData/TimeSeries.aspx, accessed September 17, 2024 While droughts are a natural phenomenon, anthropogenic (human-caused) warming has increased the probability that low-precipitation years coincide with warm years, increasing the risk and severity of droughts and low snowpack across the state. It is estimated that human-caused climate change accounts for 19% of drought severity and 42% of the soil moisture deficit in California since 2000.20F
21 Moreover, climate change is expected to continue to cause wide variability in precipitation levels, with significant fluctuations between wet years and dry years. Climate models predict with more than an 80% probability that the southwestern United States will experience a multidecadal drought during 2050-2099 under the RCP 8.5 scenario (Huang and Swain, 2022). Statewide projections for precipitation show fewer wet days, wetter winters, drier springs and autumns, and an increase in dry years as well as maximum precipitation in a single day (Pierce et al., 2018).

Social Vulnerability to Drought
During dry years, the resulting loss of snowpack in the Sierra Nevada and other mountainous regions in the southern California region will mean less water for agriculture, urban users, and utilities.

Critical vulnerabilities associated with drought include a reduction in the availability of clean and affordable drinking water, fallowing of agricultural lands (which would impact the region, including Santa Monica, indirectly in the form of limited food availability and higher food prices), regional impacts to power generation that lead to higher utility costs, increased wildfire risk, and the increasing prevalence of certain diseases caused by the inhalation of dust spores, such as Valley fever (Gorris et al., 2019).

Some of the impacts on natural resources and infrastructure systems, with an emphasis on how these resources and systems are anticipated to directly and indirectly impact the residents of Santa Monica and nearby communities are described further below:

21 California Air Resources Board, 2022, 2022 Scoping Plan for Achieving Carbon Neutrality; available at https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/2023-04/2022-sp.pdf

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-15 • Active water wells: droughts cause a decline in the regional groundwater table as the regional aquifers are not replenished by infiltration of rainwater. If the groundwater table drops below the effective pumping depth of the water wells, the wells become dry. This in turn would severely impact the City’s efforts to become water self-sufficient. • Aqueducts and water distribution: drought-induced subsidence damages the aqueduct system that supports the agricultural fields in the San Joaquin and Coachella valleys. This damage, combined with reduced water supplied to the farmers, could cause the collapse of the agricultural sector in California. This would have State-wide implications, with losses in the billions of dollars21F

22. Considering that California produces most of the nuts and fruits and some of the vegetables grown in the United States, the consequences of drought would have a significant impact on food security locally and throughout the country. • Groundwater recharge basins and spreading grounds: drought causes recharge basins and spreading grounds to dry up, which in turn results in increased pumping of groundwater. In the short term, increased pumping raises energy consumption and thus energy bills; in the long term, it lower groundwater levels and causes water wells to go dry, as discussed in the active water wells bullet above. Lower groundwater levels pose a threat to water security, and causes land subsidence and degradation of groundwater quality due to infiltration and mixing with saline water.
• Lakes, reservoirs and rivers: dropping water levels in dams and reservoirs translates into reduced water resources (i.e., increased water shortages), and reduced hydroelectric power generation. Given that Santa Monica relies primarily on clean, green (wind, solar, geothermal and hydroelectric) energy for most of its electric power, the drop in reservoir water levels is likely to have only a minimal impact on the City’s energy supplies. However, with a reduction in groundwater levels and urban runoff, the City may have to augment its water needs by relying again, at least in part, on imported water. Diminished water supply due to lower water levels in lakes, rivers, and reservoirs would be felt regionally and locally, with the limited supply driving the cost for water agencies and, ultimately, consumers. • Water treatment plants: drought would severely reduce the flow of urban runoff that Santa Monica is increasingly using to meet its water demand needs. Reduced flows to the City’s wastewater plants could damage the equipment, increase costs, and impact the City’s ability to comply with water treatment standards.
• Parks, open space and gardens: droughts directly impact the heath and quality of natural landscapes. This in turn impacts the health of native plant and animal species, expands the populations of bark beetles and other pests, increases the risk of wildland fire in the northern portion of Santa Monica and adjacent areas to the north, reduces the availability of green space and recreation areas, and reduces the production of fruits and vegetables in local backyard and community gardens.

Drought Planning and Mitigation Actions
Although drought cannot be controlled, drought can be managed through drought planning and in community-level, day-to-day management decisions while the drought is taking place. The Governor of California, for example, signed an executive order in April 2019 directing specific State agencies to develop a Water Resilience Portfolio to “ensure safe and dependable water supplies, flood protection and healthy waterways for the state’s communities, economy and environment.” The portfolio includes 142 separate actions to support local efforts to maintain and diversify water

22 https://www.ppic.org/publication/policy-brief-drought-and-californias-agriculture/, accessed October 2023.

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-16 supplies, protect, and enhance natural systems, and prepare for future risks. Key actions include continued implementation of the Safe and Affordable Drinking Water Act of 2019, the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act of 2014, and the 2018 package of water-use efficiency laws known as the “make conservation a way of life” laws (Executive Order B-37-16). In 2017, the City of Santa Monica also passed the Water Neutrality Ordinance which limits new water demands for new construction projects. Fees paid in-lieu of reducing water demand onsite are used for water efficiency projects elsewhere in the community. Santa Monica also offers resources for property owners to convert to drought tolerant landscaping and irrigation and install rainwater harvesting systems.

In 2021, Santa Monica issued its 2020 Urban Water Management Plan (UWMP) that includes Water Service Reliability and Drought Risk Assessments (DRA). The 2020 DRA assessed the city’s water supply reliability under drought conditions for the years 2021 to 2025 and concluded that if projected imported and local supplies are developed or maintained as forecasted, no water shortages are anticipated in the City’s service area during the 20-year planning period.22F 23 The UWMP also
includes a Water Shortage Contingency Plan (WSCP) which serves as an action plan for the City during an actual or predicted drought or catastrophic water supply shortage. More recently, in April 2023, the City issued a (Draft) 2023 Annual Shortage Assessment Report, which evaluates water supply reliability in the city for the period between July 1, 2023 and June 30, 2024. That study found that if unconstrained demand conditions prevailed, and assuming worst-case drought conditions and a decrease in groundwater availability due to construction at the City’s Arcadia water treatment plant, water demand would likely exceed supply (a demand of 13,661 acre-feet in demand vs. a supply of 13,609 acre-feet). To manage this anticipated shortage, the study authors recommended that the City rely on water use restrictions consistent with the State-defined Water Shortage Stage 2 that aim for a City-wide water use reduction of 20% compared to the 2013 water use levels used as a baseline.

The City relies primarily on two sources of potable water: (1) groundwater extracted by the City from the Santa Monica Groundwater Basin (SMGB), and (2) water supplied by the Metropolitan Water District (MWD) that is imported from northern California and the Colorado River. Groundwater accounts for between about 35 and 75% of the total water used, with the percentage varying on a year-by-year basis based on a variety of factors typically related to the operational status of the groundwater wells and water treatment plants that supply Santa Monica. In 2018, Santa Monica had set out to become independent of imported water by 2023. Although, as of this writing, this goal has not been achieved, the City has several ongoing projects that are part its Sustainable Water Infrastructure Project (SWIP) designed to conserve groundwater, reduce wastewater, and improve beach water quality.

The SWIP is comprised of the following elements, as outlined in the 2019 CAAP:
• Element 1 provides for a modular reverse osmosis unit at the existing Santa Monica Urban Runoff Recycling Facility (SMURRF) located near the Santa Monica Pier. The reverse osmosis-upgraded SMURRF will also leverage the recently completed Clean Beaches Initiative Project by treating stormwater and brackish groundwater for reuse. • Element 2 provides for a new underground Advanced Water Treatment Facility (AWTF) capable of treating up to 1 million gallons of wastewater per day, as well as stormwater for

23 City of Santa Monica, 2021, 2020 Urban Water Management Plan, dated June 2021.

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-17 immediate non-potable reuse. The advanced treated water will be used for groundwater recharge.
• Element 3 provides for the installation of a 1.5 MG underground stormwater harvest tank plumbed directly to the AWTF beneath the Civic Auditorium parking lot.

Other action items recommended in the 2019 CAAP that the City has implemented or is in the process of implementing include expanding capacity at the Arcadia Water Treatment Plant to accommodate more water, and increasing water production efficiencies at the plant by recovering brine concentrate. The CAAP also recommends the restoration of the Olympic wellfield and developing a new groundwater well to enhance the City’s resilience to drought.23F 24 The 2019 CAAP
set forth actions to achieve water self-sufficiency to combat the unavoidable and growing threats of climate change-driven drought impacts. Actions in the CAAP address water conservation measures in the commercial and residential sectors, alternative water supply, and local groundwater production. However, as discussed above, an extensive drought period that results in a significant drop in groundwater levels and a reduction in storm runoff could severely impact the City’s efforts to become water self-reliant. Thus, actions listed in the 2019 CAAP should be reviewed on a regular basis to ensure that they are still relevant given any changed conditions.

SEA-LEVEL RISE
Sea-level rise is the increase in the ocean’s surface height due to the melting of glaciers and sea ice as well as the thermal expansion of sea water at high temperatures. Changes in sea-level have occurred throughout the Earth’s history and typically over many thousands of years. This section discusses contemporary and near-future sea-level rise as a result of human-driven changes in climate and specifically global warming.

Sea-level rise over the past several decades has been relatively gradual. In the Los Angeles region, sea-level increased 0.39 inches per decade from 1924 through 2017 (Hall et al., 2018, based on data from NOAA). A more recent analysis suggests that the sea level trend for Los Angeles is 0.42 (±0.08) inches per decade for the time period between 1923 and 2023, which amounts to a sea level rise of approximately 4.2 inches for the century.24F 25 Although these numbers do not seem
significant, coastal communities, including many along California, are already experiencing the effects of global climate change in the form of more frequent storm flooding, and increased cliff, bluff and shoreline erosion.

Worldwide, including along the California coastline, the rise in sea-level and storm surges is anticipated to lead to loss of coastal wetlands, erosion of cliffs and beaches, and saltwater contamination of drinking water. These conditions are in turn already impacting infrastructure (including transportation routes, harbors, wastewater treatment plants, and storm water systems), and flooding of low-lying residential and commercial properties. At a human level, the impact of sea-level rise on coastal communities can perhaps be appreciated by the fact that in 2019, it was estimated that nearly 700 million people worldwide were living at or near sea level (Oppenheimer et al., 2019), and this figure is only expected to increase. The 2019 estimate is more than twice the

24 Water Self-Sufficiency Action Items 2 (Arcadia Water Treatment Improvements) and 4 (Expand Local Water Resources) in Santa Monica’s 2019 CAAP. 25 https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/sltrends/sltrends_station.shtml?id=9410660, accessed September 18, 2024.

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-18 entire population of the United States in 2024. In California alone, the number of people living at or near sea level is estimated at 25 million people.

Although sea-level rise by itself does not cause substantial changes to the landforms along the coastline, several processes associated with sea-level rise can have dramatic effects on our environment. For example, a significant rise in sea level will inundate coastal wetlands and lowlands, and the increased surges and swells associated with the rise in sea level will accelerate coastal erosion and exacerbate coastal flooding, thereby threatening local structures and habitat.

The combined effects of sea-level rise, and the high tides and large waves brought on by storms, especially during El Niño events and atmospheric rivers, will, in the short-term, result in increased flooding of low-lying areas, and accelerated erosion of beaches and sea cliffs, including the sea bluffs along Pacific Palisades. Other potential related processes include higher water tables, increased sea-water intrusion into fresh-water aquifers, and increased salinity of rivers, bays, and aquifers. The California Coastal Commission (2021) has estimated that a sea-level rise of 4.6 feet will place hundreds of miles of transportation infrastructure in the State at peril of flooding, including sections of Pacific Coast Highway that connect to Santa Monica. Sea-level rise will also impact dozens of water treatment facilities and water distribution networks, not to mention the livelihood of millions of people that depend on California’s $44-billion ocean-based economy. As a result, the Coastal Commission25F
26, together with other State agencies, has developed guidelines designed to plan for, and mitigate or reduce the impacts of sea-level rise.

Sea-level Rise Projections in Santa Monica and Social Impacts Sea-level rise within Los Angeles County (and globally) is projected to accelerate through the 21st century largely as a result of the melting of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet due to increased global temperatures. The exact extent of near-future sea-level rise is not yet certain, however, due in part to uncertainty of how humans will curtail greenhouse gas emissions in the coming decades.

Therefore, to understand potential effects, scientists and practitioners use five sea-level rise scenarios, which represent a plausible range of future sea-level rise. These scenarios were developed by the State of California Sea-level Rise Guidance (California Ocean Protection Council, 2024) and developed from projections from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Sixth Assessment Report. The five scenarios are as follows:
• Low: The result of aggressive emissions reductions leading to very low future emissions; this scenario is on the lower bounding edge of plausibility. • Intermediate Low: A reasonable estimate of the lower bound of most likely sea-level rise in 2100 based on sea-level observations and current estimates of future warming. • Intermediate: A reasonable estimate of the upper bound of most likely sea-level rise in 2100 based on sea-level observations and current estimates of future warming. • Intermediate High: The result of intermediate-to-high future emissions and high warming; this scenario is heavily reflective of a world where rapid ice sheet loss processes contribute to sea-level rise.
• High: High future emissions and high warming with large potential contributions from rapid ice-sheet loss processes; given the reliance on sea-level contributions for processes in which there is currently low confidence in their understanding, a statement on the likelihood of reaching this scenario is not possible.

26 https://documents.coastal.ca.gov/assets/slr/SLR%20Guidance_Critical%20Infrastructure_12.6.2021.pdf

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-19 For local and regional land-use and community planning efforts and projects, the California SeaLevel Rise Guidance Council recommends evaluation of the Intermediate, Intermediate High, and High scenarios to inform appropriate sea-level rise planning and project decisions. These scenarios project that sea-levels in Santa Monica will rise between 0.7 and 1.2 feet by 2050 and 2.9 to 6.4 feet by 2100 (Table 11-4 and Figure 11-6). Beyond the year 2100, the range of possible rises in sea level becomes increasingly large and increasingly difficult to estimate due to uncertainties associated with the physical processes responsible for this, such as earlier-than-expected ice sheet loss.

Table 11-4 and -Figure 11-6: Projected Sea-Level Rise Scenarios for Santa Monica Year Low I-L I I-H High
2020 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
2030 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4
2040 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
2050 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.2
2060 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.5 1.9
2070 0.6 0.9 1.3 2.1 2.8
2080 0.6 1.0 1.7 2.9 3.9
2090 0.7 1.2 2.3 3.7 5.2
2100 0.8 1.4 2.9 4.6 6.4
2110 0.8 1.6 3.6 5.5 7.7
2120 0.9 1.8 4.2 6.2 8.8
2130 0.9 1.9 4.7 6.8 9.7
2140 1.0 2.1 5.2 7.3 10.6
2150 1.1 2.3 5.7 7.9 11.5
I-L = Intermediate Low, I = Intermediate, I-H = Intermediate-High Source: State of California Sea-Level Rise Guidance: 2024 Science and Policy Update: California Sea Level Rise Science Task Force, California Ocean Protection Council, California Ocean Science Trust.

To gain a better understanding of what these projected sea-rise levels would have on the Santa Monica coastline, an analysis was conducted using a sea-level rise visualization tool. The Coastal Storm Modeling System (CoSMoS) is a dynamic modeling tool developed by the United States Geological Survey and accessed through the Our Coast Our Future (OCOF) web interface. Its flooding layer allows users to select different values of sea-level rise (in meters and feet) and storm frequency (none [i.e., daily conditions], annual, 20-year, or 100-year) to visualize flooding at a 1- meter (~3-foot) resolution across California’s outer coast and estuaries. Because CoSMoS is a comprehensive modeling tool, it incorporates all the key drivers of coastal flooding, including sealevel rise, tides, seasonal effects, storm surge, waves, and river flows to produce location-specific maps showing total water levels and the associated flooding. It can be used as a screening tool to examine the flooding from different combinations of sea-level rise and storm conditions to help inform selection of the most appropriate sea-level rise and storm scenarios for a vulnerability assessment. Three sea-level rise scenarios were considered, with the results shown graphically on Figure 11-7.

The upper panel on Figure 11-7 shows the level of flooding projected using CoSMoS and a sea-level rise of 3.3 feet, which is approximately the increase in sea level expected by the year 2100 using the Intermediate scenario.26F
27 Flooding at this level under annual storm flooding conditions would

27 OCOF allows users to select from a limited number of sea-level rise values (i.e., 0.8, 1.6, 2.5, 3.3, 4.1, 4.9, 5.7,

6.6, 8.2, 9.8, and 16.4 feet). Depending on what water levels are identified for analysis, there might not be an option that is an exact match to the rise in sea level values presented in Table 11-4. For instance, the Intermediate

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-20 affect the entire sandy beach area along the coastline, the area around the Santa Monica Pier and the parking lots immediately adjacent to the pier, in addition to the area around the Pico Kenter storm drain outlet. This sea-level rise combined with a 100-year storm flooding event would result in flooding of the beach bike path near the northern portion of the city, the beach-front portion of several properties near and north of the Montana Avenue storm drain outlet, and the beach bike path and several of the parking areas south of the Pier and the Pico Kenter storm drain outlet. The lowermost two panels on Figure 11-7 show the same data for both the annual storm event and the 100-year storm event, with the flooded areas anticipated as a result of the Intermediate scenario shaded in light green.

The middle panel on Figure 11-7 shows the areas anticipated to regularly flood as a result of a rise in sea level of 4.9 feet based on the Intermediate-High scenario. Under this scenario, the flooding as a result of this rise in sea level combined with an annual storm is anticipated to impact a wider swath of the sandy beach area, in addition to the Santa Monica Pier area and surrounding parking lots, and a large swath of beach area between the bike path and Ocean Front Walk. This same sealevel rise level combined with a 100-year storm is projected to flood several of the properties on the west side of PCH near the north end of the city, and to nearly Appian Way, Ocean Avenue and Barnard Way on the southern half of the city. As before, these flood levels are also illustrated on the bottom two panels on Figure 11-7, with the Intermediate-High sea-level rise flooding levels shown in light blue.

Flooding levels associated with the High Scenario sea-level rise of 6.6 feet are shown on the third panel from the top on Figure 11-7. Annual storm flooding combined with this sea level is anticipated to reduce the width of the sandy beach area by approximately one-fourth of its current width, flood most of the area west of Appian Way, Ocean Avenue, and Barnard Way, and flood inland of the bike trail in the northern portion of the coastline. This rise in sea level combined with a 100-year storm is anticipated to flood past the east side of Barnard Way, Ocean Avenue and Appian Way on the southern half of the city, and flood most of the properties on the west side of PCH on the northern portion of the city. The flood limits associated with this High Scenario sea-level rise combined with an annual storm and a 100-year storm are shown on the bottom two panels in light purple.

scenario for Santa Monica at 2100 is 2.9 feet, which is between the available selections of 2.5 and 3.3 feet in OCOF. As indicated in the Guidance for these situations, it is not always necessary to analyze the exact numerical values; it is more important that the full range of values from Intermediate to High scenarios, with consideration of storm conditions, is evaluated.

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-21 Figure 11-7: Flood Extent along the Santa Monica Coastline Through the Year 2100 Using Three Sea-Level Rise Scenarios Sources:

Esri, Airbus DS, USGS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson , NCEAS, NLS OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, Intermap and the GIS user community, County of Los Angeles, California State Parks, Esri, TomTom, Garmin, SafeGraph, GeoTechnologies, Inc., METI/NASA, USGS, Bureau of Land Management, EPA, NPS, US Census Bureau, USDA, USFWS.

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-22 Sea level rise in Santa Monica is anticipated to result not only in property damage and losses, as discussed above, but also disruption of schools, businesses, and transportation.27F 28 The Santa Monica
Pier, a major tourist destination and source of income for many, will be impacted by higher waves and a higher volume of water; both of these conditions can damage the structure. This has already happened: storm surges during the February 2022 storms caused an estimated $166,000.00 in damages, with most of that being damage to the Pier28F

29. As part of its AB 69129F30 assessment, the City
of Santa Monica has estimated that sea level rise will cost the City millions of dollars in losses to City infrastructure and in non-market value associated with the public’s use of the beach and other coastal resources. These costs are summarized in Table 11-5 below.

Table 11-5: Anticipated Costs of Sea Level Rise in
Santa Monica (in millions of $) Through the Year 2100
Year (Sea-level rise in inches) 2030 (11.8) 2050 (24) 2100 (65.7) Assets at risk or
Repair and replacement costs
$2.6 $2.7 $8.4
(plus $22.72 in losses
to private property)
Losses in non-market value $74.1 $260.8 $816.4
Cost of adaptation $2.7 - $186.9 $2.7 - $195.7 $28.9 - $204.5 Source: https://slcprdwordpressstorage.blob.core.windows.net/wordpressdata/2022/09/ab691-summarysantamonica.pdf Sea-Level Rise Adaptation Strategies in Santa Monica
In an effort to counteract some of the impacts discussed above, the City of Santa Monica has adopted a Local Coastal Program Land Use Plan (LCP LUP) that establishes policies and adaptation strategies.

These policies and strategies are to be implemented in phases as changes due to sea level rise occur.

The LCP LUP outlines policies for hazard zone properties, as well as a roadmap for adaptation to make the City more resilient to sea level rise. For instance, the City is exploring natural solutions to improve the biodiversity and resiliency of its beaches, while addressing the potential impacts of sea level rise. One such measure is a pilot program for dune creation in the North Beach area that successfully increased the height of the dunes and is now being expanded.

Other adaptive management actions that the City’s 2019 CAAP has identified as helpful in preparing the area for future coastal flooding as a result of a rise in sea level include:
• Conduct a financial cost analysis of future sea-level rise, including the costs of replacing or repairing the resources and facilities that would be impacted by coastal flooding, and quantifying the non-market losses or costs to the recreation and ecosystem services in the impacted area.30F
31 28 2019 Santa Monica CAAP, pg. 36. 29 Lindsay Call, Santa Monica’s Chief Resilience Officer and Emergency Operations Director, personal communication, December 16, 2024. 30 Assembly Bill (AB) 691 (Muratsuchi, 2013) requires local trustees of state lands to assess the impacts of sea-level rise on the coastal assets that they manage, and develop adaptation strategies to build resilience to coastal climate change impacts. 31 Coastal Flooding Action Item 1 (Resilient Buildings and Infrastructure in the Coastal Zone) in Santa Monica’s 2019 CAAP.

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Packet Pg. 1113 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 2: Hazards [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Section 11
City of Santa Monica, California
2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-23 • Conduct site-specific vulnerability assessments of City-owned buildings, infrastructure and facilities in the coastal zone, and develop guidelines and standards for buildings and infrastructure to be either flood-proof or, at a minimum, be capable of accommodating temporary flooding.31F
32 • Integrate the latest sea-level rise projections into the Santa Monica Pier structural assessments and design improvements, and implement capital improvements that will help this structure withstand increased wave heights and on-shore flooding.32F 33 • Evaluate and adopt, as appropriate, shoreline management activities that address sea-level rise and coastal flooding with an emphasis on “soft” adaptation strategies such as managed retreat, beach nourishment, and dune restoration over “hard” adaptation strategies like seawalls.33F
34 To that end, the City of Santa Monica has been conducting dune restoration activities south of the Annenberg Community Beach House. These projects include installing fencing to restrict access to the dunes, planting seeds of California native vegetation, and adding interpretative signage to educate the public about local plant and bird species, native coastal habitats, and healthy beach management.
• Continue to monitor sea-level rise and coastal flooding impacts using tidal gage data, pier scour analysis, seasonal beach width, storm-flooding damage and other technologies as appropriate, and regularly update the coastal hazard maps (at a minimum every five years) using the best-available science. As climate-change impacts increase, phase in policies and projects identified in the Local Coastal Plan.34F
35 SEVERE WINDSTORMS
Windstorms, events of high windspeed, are a relatively common occurrence in southern California.

Severe windstorms are specifically defined as storms where wind gusts are at least 58 mph (50 knots).35F
36 Damaging winds include straight-line winds that do not rotate, tornadoes (where wind rotates), and downdrafts (which are small-scale columns of air that rapidly sink toward the ground).

Santa Ana winds and tornadoes are covered in more detail below. Downdrafts are divided by size into macrobursts and microbursts. A macroburst has a horizontal dimension at the ground surface of 2.5 miles (4 km) or more, whereas a microburst is smaller than 2.5 miles. These downdrafts typically are associated with thunderstorms.36F
37 Windstorm events can last several days (e.g., Santa Ana winds), a few hours (e.g., thunderstorms and tropical storms), or a few minutes (e.g., tornadoes, macrobursts, and microbursts). Santa Monica experiences significant Santa Ana wind events and sporadic tornado activity; both of these damaging winds have historically impacted the community.

32 Ibid 33 Coastal Flooding Action Item 3 (Climate-Ready Santa Monica Pier) in Santa Monica’s 2019 CAAP. 34 Coastal Flooding Action Item 4 (Adopt a Shoreline Management Plan) in Santa Monica’s 2019 CAAP. 35 Coastal Flooding Action Item 6 (Local Coastal Program Monitoring & Implementation) in Santa Monica’s 2019 CAAP. 36 https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/wind/faq/ accessed on September 19, 2024. 37 https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/wind/types/ accessed on September 9, 2024.

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Packet Pg. 1114 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 2: Hazards [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Section 11
City of Santa Monica, California
2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-24 Santa Ana winds are a climatic condition unique to California characterized by strong, straight-line wind flows that come from the northeast and move downslope and offshore. Santa Ana winds are more prevalent between October and April. Whereas most severe winds are caused by intense storm systems like thunderstorms and tropical storms, Santa Ana winds are unique in that they occur in the absence of storms. Santa Ana winds
typically create hot, dry weather conditions
due to compressional heating of the
lower atmosphere. On average, Santa
Ana wind conditions occur five to ten
times a year, with each event lasting up
to a few days. Forecasters at the
National Weather Service usually
reserve the use of “Santa Ana” winds for
those over 25 knots, or ~29 miles per
hour (mph), although they have an
average wind speed of 40 mph (with
higher gust speeds). Severe Santa Ana
winds can reach speeds up to 80-100
mph in some areas, which can damage
or destroy buildings, knock over trees,
and damage power lines and electrical
equipment (potentially causing wildfires).

The NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) lists about 52 thunderstorm wind events in the Los Angeles County area between January 1950 and June 2024. The list also includes six (6) strong wind (37-42 knots) days and 239 high wind (>42 knots) days in the same area between January 1, 1996 and June 30, 2024.37F
38 Only the wind events that were deemed to have occurred closest to Santa Monica and were described as most extreme are included in Table 11-6, below.

The table highlights strong winds associated with Santa Anas and winter storms in the Santa Monica Mountains and coastal valley areas.

Table 11-6 shows that most significant Santa Ana winds in the region occur between the months of October and March, and tend to impact a wide area. Note that there is some inter-annual variability of Santa Ana wind events and no significant trends in intensity, duration or frequency of Santa Ana winds have been detected during the last century (Hall et al., 2018). High winds accompanying winter storms approaching from the north or northwest also occur most often between November and February, although winter storms can occur as early as August, and as late as May.

Table 11-6: Selected Extreme Wind Events Reported in the San Monica Region Through June 2024. Santa Ana Wind events are highlighted in yellow.

Date Wind Speed Description/Event Narrative
12/4/1957 Not reported Strong thunderstorm winds reported in the Redondo Beach area. 2/11/1959 Not reported Strong thunderstorm winds in the Santa Monica area. 8/17/1962 Not reported Strong thunderstorm winds in the northern Palos Verdes area. 5/8/1977 Not reported Strong thunderstorm winds in the Lakewood area. 38 https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/, accessed more recently on September 19, 2024.

Figure 11-8: Santa Ana Winds
Source: USGS at https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/santa-ana-winds

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Packet Pg. 1115 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 2: Hazards [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Section 11
City of Santa Monica, California
2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-25 Date Wind Speed Description/Event Narrative
3/2 (or 6)/1980 60 knots/69
mph
Strong downdraft wind near Dewey and Olympic in Los Angeles uprooted trees, tore down billboards and broke windows. Damages estimated at $10,000.
3/1/1981 Not reported Strong thunderstorm winds between Carson and Lakewood. 11/25/1996 30-85 knots/
35-98 mph
Strong surface high pressure over the Great Basin produced strong Santa Ana winds throughout the southern California area. Numerous trees and power lines were blown down.
11/28/1996 26-52/
30-60 mph
Strong winds from the northwest in the wake of a cold front downed numerous trees and power lines.
12/14&17/1996 83 knots/
96 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds. Sustained winds speed reached 45 to 55 mph with gusts up to 95 mph through passes and canyons. Numerous damages occurred, including many downed power lines which left thousands without electricity. Multiple injuries, one death in Los Angeles County on the 14th.
1/5/1997 86 knots/
99 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds with gusts to 99 mph caused extensive damage throughout the region. A man was killed when a tree fell onto him. At Burbank Airport the winds flipped over several planes.

Eleven cities at the foot of the Santa Monica / San Gabriel Mountains declared local states of emergency.
2/23-24/1997 52 knots/
60 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds developed in the region. With gusts to 60 mph. Numerous power lines were blown down. A downed power line in Santa Paula caused a house fire.
12/9/1997 63 knots/
72 mph
Strong winds flowing north to northeast with gusts up to 72 mph reported. Tree blew down onto I-10 in Covina and van ran into it; in Santa Clarita an eucalyptus tree was blown down onto a parked vehicle; numerous power outages; 15 boats destroyed in Avalon Harbor on Catalina Island.
2/2-3/1998 78 knots/
90 mph
Powerful winter storm slammed into southern California with powerful winds buffeting the area. Hundreds of trees and power lines were blown down, resulting in numerous outages. Winds were accompanied by intense rains, leading to flooding and mudslides closing sections of several highways.
2/5/1998 61 knots/
70 mph
Powerful storm slammed into central and southern California.

Powerful winds buffeted the entire area. Strong winds, gusting up to 70 mph, knocked down many trees and power lines. Rainfall totals ranged from 1 to 3 inches over coastal areas, up to 6 inches in the mountains. Numerous flooding problems were reported across the area.
2/7-8/1998 61 knots/
70 mph
Strong winds associated with a winter storm knocked down many trees and power lines. In Encino the winds knocked down Lang Oak, a 1000-year-old oak. Winds accompanied widespread flooding and mudslides.
5/13/1998 60 knots/
70 mph
Strong thunderstorm winds produced damage in the Long Beach area.

The roof of a couple of service bay areas was blown off at a car dealership, and a 600-square-foot section of roof was torn off an aircraft instrument company next door.
12/9/1998 66 knots/
76 mph
Powerful Santa Ana winds measured at about 69 mph in the coasts and valleys and up to 76 mph in the mountains knocked down numerous power lines causing many power outages. In Glendale the winds fueled a brush fire that was ignited by a downed power line.

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Packet Pg. 1116 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 2: Hazards [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Section 11
City of Santa Monica, California
2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-26 Date Wind Speed Description/Event Narrative
4/3/1999 55 knots/
63 mph
Strong northwest winds across central and southern California with sustained winds of 35-45 mph and gusts to 65 mph. Widespread power outages and felled trees reported. A tree in Long Beach fell and blocked two lanes of traffic on the 710 Freeway. The Catalina Island Yacht Club reported severe wind damage to their quarter deck. 11/21-22/1999 46-63 knots/
53-72 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds buffeted the region. The winds snapped a support cable on the Vincent Thomas Bridge in San Pedro, closing several lanes of traffic. In Studio City the winds blew down a construction wall at Universal City Walk, injuring 7 people. 12/2/1999 67 knots/
77 mph
Strong offshore winds caused numerous trees and power lines to be blown down.
2/23/2000 50 knots/

57.5 mph
Powerful Pacific storm brought heavy rain, thunderstorms and snow to southern California. Strong winds in Central Los Angeles damaged roofs and blew down power lines. One downed line electrified a fence, which in turn electrocuted and injured a woman.
3/5/2000 60 knots/
70 mph
Severe thunderstorm struck Long Beach and blew down numerous power poles near the intersection of Stearn Street and Redondo Lane. 4/18/2000 70-87 knots/

80.5-100 mph
Severe thunderstorm produced microburst winds estimated at 80-100 mph. More than 30 mobile homes in Paramount were damaged; one was blown over. Structural damage to several homes and businesses in Bellflower, Downey, Norwalk, Whittier, La Mirada and to the east.

Destruction of chimneys and concrete walls; numerous trees and power poles blown down. In Norwalk a 100-foot eucalyptus tree closed all southbound lanes of the I-5 for three hours. 2/13/2001 45 knots/
52 mph
Powerful Pacific storm brought heavy rain, snow and gusty winds to central and southern California. In the coastal areas, winds 30-50 mph produced some damage. In San Pedro Harbor several docks were damaged and one boat sunk.
4/20/2001 50 knots/

57.5 mph
Strong thunderstorm winds struck near the community of Baldwin Hills. Three trees were blown down along South Redondo Avenue; one person was injured when they drove through debris on that road. 3/13/2002 16-22 knots/
30-40 mph
Gusty winds knocked down some trees across the Los Angeles County, causing minor damage. In Los Angeles winds knocked down a 50-foot tree onto a van; in Studio City winds knocked down a tree onto a UPS truck; and in Hollywood, winds knocked down a tree onto a car. No injuries reported as a result of these incidents. 11/25/2002 57-70 knots/
66-81 mph
Powerful Santa Ana winds buffered Los Angeles and Ventura counties. Thousands left without power after winds snapped power lines. Many trees were blown down. In Glendale, snapped power lines sparked three house fires.
1/6/2003 65 knots/
75 mph
Powerful Santa Ana winds buffeted Los Angeles and Ventura counties. Gusts knocked down numerous trees and power lines, closing several roads. In the Santa Monica Mountains north of Malibu, the winds fueled a 2,200-acre brush fire that destroyed two structures.
4/18/2004 70-87 knots/
80-100 mph
Severe thunderstorm caused structural damage in Paramount, where 30 mobile homes were damaged, including one that was blown over.

The storm also did damage in Downey, Norwalk, Whittier, La Mirada, Rowland Heights and Diamond Bar, damaging chimneys, concrete walls, and knocking over numerous trees and power poles.

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Packet Pg. 1117 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 2: Hazards [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Section 11
City of Santa Monica, California
2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-27 Date Wind Speed Description/Event Narrative
A 100-foot-tall eucalypts tree was blown down across Interstate 5, closing all southbound lanes for 3 hours.
10/18 &
26/2006
56 knots/
64 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds with gusts to 65 mph in the Santa Monica Mountains recreational area.
11/28-30 &
12/2-3/2006
56 knots/
64 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds in Los Angeles and Ventura counties caused scattered power outages as a result of downed power lines. Gusts to 64 mph reported in Malibu Hills. Near Moorpark the winds helped fan the Shekell wildfire.
12/22/2006 54 knots/ Strong northerly winds developed behind a cold front caused several thousand people in Los Angeles County to lose power due to downed power lines.
12/28/2006 62 knots/
71 mph
A fast-moving storm system moved through Southern California. The main weather associated with this storm system was the gusty offshore winds that developed behind the storm. The gusty winds affected Santa Barbara, Ventura and Los Angeles counties and gusted as high as 100 mph. Widespread power outages were reported across the area due to downed power lines. Multiple injuries, one reported death from drowning at sea.
1/15/2007 56 knots/64
mph
A cold arctic storm brought widespread freezing temperatures and some gusty offshore winds to the area. Across the agricultural areas of San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Ventura and Los Angeles counties, the freezing overnight temperatures nearly $350 million in crop damages. In the windier spots of the Los Angeles County mountains, wind gusts between 60 and 65 mph were reported.
9/21/2007 52 knots/
60 mph
Early season cold storm brought significant weather to southern California, including intense rainfall and strong winds. Severn power poles were downed in Hollywood.
10/21/2007 56 knots/
64 mph
Santa Ana winds. Four of the wildfires exceeded 700 acres with one fire burning nearly 60,000 acres in the county.
2/14/2008 65 knots/
75 mph
Strong northerly offshore winds reported in the Santa Monica Mountains area.
5/21/2008 74 knots/
85 mph
Cold system brought strong winds, thunderstorms, hail and flash flooding to southern California. Northerly gusts 58-85 mph reported.

Flooding and lane closures reported along I-10 and I-605. 10/13/2008 69 knots/
79 mph
Strong high-pressure system over the Great Basin produced gusty northeast winds with peak wind gusts between 60-85 mph. 1/9/2009 52 knots/
60 mph
Strong gusty Santa Ana winds across Ventura and Los Angeles counties with gusts 60-73 mph.
10/27/2009 70 knots/

80.5 mph
Powerful early season storm produced very strong gusty winds that knocked down power lines and trees, leading to numerous electric outages.
1/21/2010 52 knots/
60 mph
Powerful winter storm brought heavy rain, flash flooding and gusty winds, with gusts of 60 mph. Wind gusts downed several trees in the Downey and Pico Rivera areas.
12/29/2010 54 knots/
62 mph
Winter storm, produced between 0.50 and 1.50 inches of rainfall across the area. This storm system produced strong and damaging northerly winds across the area. With the ground already saturated from previous rainfall, the strong winds toppled many trees, producing scattered power outages and road blockages.
2/2/2011 67 knots/
77 mph
Santa Ana wind event with gusty winds between 60-67 mph in the Santa Monica Mountains and Malibu Hills.

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Packet Pg. 1118 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 2: Hazards [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Section 11
City of Santa Monica, California
2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-28 Date Wind Speed Description/Event Narrative
11/2/2011 72 knots/
83 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds up to 83 mph in the mountains and 59 mph in the coastal plain.
11/30-
12/1/2011
63 knots/

72.5 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds with widespread wind gusts 60-70 mph.

Widespread power outages; in the San Gabriel Valley over 350,000 residents lost power. In Pasadena 42 buildings were red-tagged due to wind damage. Strong winds at LAX forced 23 flights to be diverted to Ontario.
10/25-26/2012 70 knots/
81 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds with gusts as high as 81 mph in the mountains of Los Angeles County.
1/17/2013 66 knots/
76 mph
Strong gusty Santa Ana winds with winds as high as 76 mph reported. 5/2/2013 64 knots/
74 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds with gusts to 74 mph reported. In Ventura County the winds helped spread the 24,000-acre Springs Fire. 10/4/2013 78 knots/
90 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds in the Santa Monica Mountains with sustained winds as high as 54 mph and gusts to 90 mph.
12/9-14/2013 80 knots/
92 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds with gusts to 92 mph across the Santa Monica Mountains and Malibu Hills.
12/29/2013 76 knots/
87 mph
Another round of Santa Ana winds with sustained winds to 62 mph and gusts to 87 mph.
4/29/2014 56 knots/
64 mph
Santa Ana winds. As the winds developed, a couple of small wildfires occurred across the mountains of Ventura and Los Angeles counties, but did not grow to any significant levels.
11/16/2014 64 knots/
64 mph
Santa Ana winds in the Santa Monica Mountains and Malibu Hills with gusts to 74 mph.
12/21/2014 70 knots/
82 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds with gusts 65-82 mph reported in the Santa Ana Mountains and Malibu Hills.
12/30/2014 68 knots/
78 mph
Strong gusty Santa Ana winds in the mountains of Los Angeles County, and extending offshore to Catalina Island where 2 people died when swept overboard and crushed between a boat and rocks due to winds.
1/23-24/2015 66 knots/
76 mph
Strong gusty Santa Ana winds with gusts to 79 mph.
12/11/2015 69 knots/
79 mph
Strong northerly pressure gradient generated strong and gusty north winds with gusts to 79 mph.
3/7/2016 52 knots/
60 mph
Powerful late season storm brought heavy rain, flash flooding and strong winds to the area. Winds knocked down several trees, including one large tree in Cerritos.
1/22/2017 72 knots/
83 mph
Strong winter storm brought heavy rain, snow and strong winds to the region. Gusts to 83 mph reported.
2/17/2017 51 knots/
59 mph
A powerful winter storm moved across southwestern California, bringing heavy rain and snow, strong winds and flash flooding to the area. Rainfall amounts ranged from 2 to 6 inches across coastal areas with up to around 10 inches in the local mountains. This heavy rain produced numerous reports of flash flooding as well as mud and debris flows. In the local mountains, snowfall totals between 1 and 2 feet were reported at the resort level. Strong southerly winds accompanied the storm with wind gusts up to around 70 mph reported in some areas.
10/9/2017 65 knots/
75 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds reported in the Santa Monica Mountains and Los Angeles County with gusts between 64 and 75 mph.

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Packet Pg. 1119 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 2: Hazards [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Section 11
City of Santa Monica, California
2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-29 Date Wind Speed Description/Event Narrative
12/4-5/2017 63 knots/
73 mph
Santa Ana winds. North to northeast wind gusts up to 73 mph were reported. During this event, the Thomas Fire ignited across Ventura County, eventually spreading into Santa Barbara County. 4/9/2019 64 knots/
74 mph
Strong gusty northwest to north winds impacted the mountains in Ventura and Los Angeles Counties, with gusts to 74 mph. 11/25/2019 77 knots/
89 mph
Strong and gusty northerly winds with gusts to 89 mph reported in some areas.
10/26/2020 83 knots/

95.5 mph
Strong and gusty Santa Ana winds buffeted sections of Los Angeles and Ventura counties, with gusts 70-95 mph in the mountains, and 60-75 mph in the valleys.
12/2-3/2020 74 knots/
85 mph
Strong, gusty Santa Ana winds impacted the mountains and valleys of Los Angeles and Ventura counties, with gusts 58-85 mph reported. 1/19/2021 86 knots/
99 mph
Very strong Santa Ana winds with gusts to 99 mph downed numerous small trees and branches in the Los Angeles and Ventura counties. 10/4/2021 51 knots/
59 mph
Strong thunderstorms generated strong outflow winds with gusts to 78 mph in the southern Santa Monica Mountains and near Malibu. 11/24-25/2021 74 knots/
85 mph
Very strong, gusty Santa Ana winds with gusts to 89 mph reported in the mountains of Los Angeles County.
1/14/2022 70 knots/
80 mph
Strong gusty Santa Ana winds impacted the mountains in Los Angeles County with gusts between 61-80 mph.
11/15-16/2022 89 knots/
102 mph
Very strong, gusty Santa Ana winds impacted many areas of Los Angeles and Ventura counties, with gusts >100 mph in the mountains, and gusts 60-80 mph reported in other areas, including Malibu Coast.
11/24/2022 86 knots/
99 mph
A third round of gusty Santa Ana winds in the mountains and valleys of Los Angeles and Ventura counties, with gusts to 99 mph. 12/10/2022 79 knots/
91 mph
Powerful winter storm brought rain, snow and gusty winds to southern California. Strong southerly winds >80 mph reported. 1/9/2023 82 knots/
94 mph
Power atmospheric river brought rain, flooding and gusty winds to the mountains and foothills. Strong southerly winds >90 mph measured in the mountains of Los Angeles County.
1/26/2023 61-97 knots/
70-108 mph
Strong northerly winds impacted the mountains of Los Angeles County with peak wind gusts >100 mph.
1/30-31/2023 58-70 knots/
67-80.5 mph
Strong gusty north to northeast winds impacted the Malibu Coast area and other areas in the western Santa Monica Mountains. Gusts to 80 mph reported.
02/24/2023 81 knots/
93 mph
Powerful winter storm brought heavy rain, snow and strong winds to southern California. Peak gusts of 93 mph were reported. About 25 uprooted trees and downed limbs were reported in Santa Monica.3 8F 39 3/1/2023 48 knots/
55 mph
Moderate winter storm brought rainfall and scattered thunderstorms with gusty winds to the coastal plain of Los Angeles County. Winds uprooted trees and blew shingles off roofs. One person was injured by wind-blown debris. Communities most impacted are located between Downey and Montebello.
10/29/2023 54-90 knots/
62-104 mph
Strong gusty north to northeast winds with widespread gusts in the 60-70 mph range, and localized gusts to 100 mph.
11/19-20/2023 52-81 knots/
60-93 mph
Strong and gusty Santa Ana winds impacted many areas in Los Angeles County, with northeasterly wind gusts up to 93 mph.

39 https://smdp.com/2023/02/28/winter-storm-2/ accessed September 24, 2024.

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Packet Pg. 1120 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 2: Hazards [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Section 11
City of Santa Monica, California
2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-30 Date Wind Speed Description/Event Narrative
12/7-9/2023 56 knots/
64 mph
Strong and gusty north to northeast winds impacted the western Santa Monica Mountains. Gusts to 79 mph reported.
1/6-7/2024 52-61 knots/
60-70 mph
Strong gusty winds impacted the western Santa Monica Mountains, with gust to 70 mph.
1/11/2024 51 knots/
59 mph
Strong gusty winds impacted the western Santa Monica Mountains, with gust to 78 mph.
2/7/2024 62 knots/
71 mph
Strong winter storm brought rain and strong winds to the area.

Thunderstorms and tornadoes reported, with sensor at Saddle Peak in the southern Santa Monica Mountains by Malibu reporting gusts of 62 knots.
2/19/2024 43 knots/

49.5 mph
Thirds powerful winter storm brought rain, flooding, debris flows to the area, and gusty winds. Strong winds knocked down tree across the southbound lanes of Topanga Canyon Boulevard near its intersection with Grand View Drive. Mudslide across Highway 1 near Topanga Beach, and several boulders closed other roads in Malibu. 12/9-10/2024 59-81 knots
68-93 mph
Strong Santa Ana winds fanned the Franklin Fire that started in Malibu Creek State Park on the evening of December 9th and spread, igniting in total more than 4,000 acres. On the 10th, at one point the winds were so strong that the fire tripled in size in just one hour.

Wind speeds recorded during the Franklin fire include sustained winds of between 30 and 60 mph, with gusts that ranged between 68 and 93 mph.
1/7-8/2025 52-87 knots/
60-100 mph
Extremely strong Santa Ana wind event fanned the Pacific Palisades and Eaton fires that caused widespread destruction in the Los Angeles region. Peak winds during this event in the Pacific Palisades area were reported at about 60-70 mph, with gusts up to 80 mph, whereas in the Eaton area, peak winds were in the 70-80 mph range, with some gusts exceeding 100 mph. The strong winds caused the Pacific Palisades to grow from 20 acres to 200 acres in the span of 20 minutes, and to more than 1,200 acres in the span of an hour. Strong winds at night grounded firefighting aircraft.

Sources: NCEI storm event database (https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/), most recently accessed September 23, 2024. For the two most recent events, data was compiled from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palisades_Fire, https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/santa-ana-wind-analysis-palisades-eaton-wildfires-jason-shafer-p8pre/, and https://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/california-wildfires/timeline-eaton-palisades-fires-la-county/3614940/, all accessed on March 10, 2025.

Tornadoes, another type of severe winds, are violently rotating columns of air that extend from a thunderstorm to the ground (Figure 11-939F
40), occurring most often when warm, moist air meets a cold front. In the United States, tornadoes are most common during the spring and summer months in the Central Plains, east of the Rocky Mountains, but it is important to note that tornadoes can occur anywhere. In coastal regions, for example, tornadoes can accompany tropical storms and hurricanes

40 Source: https://www.yahoo.com/news/tornado-california-not-rare-might-think200755846.html?guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuYmluZy5jb20v&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAABBWGcWLb_qkhWW4CabKz bsU8HG-qIkx58i-2V0a9JBj7yax-vYm-Ljfy30TLhqFEluILdcFP1EpGYjz5k0z4_WJAvl472WhaqFuYfzJ50maw4MsQYqE1y6QEpOcDlMYgiYmlRwH7llK17R7ptPwaNyyfOPJRq13SkJPxfOO54H&guccounter=2, accessed November 19, 2024.

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Packet Pg. 1121 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 2: Hazards [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Section 11
City of Santa Monica, California
2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-31 as they move on land, where they usually occur to
the right and ahead of the path of the storm center
as it comes onshore.40F
41 Based on data collected
between 1950 and 1991, peak tornado occurrence
in California is between January and April.

The most violent tornadoes are capable of tremendous
destruction with wind speeds of 250 mph or more.

Damage paths can be more than one-mile wide and 50
miles long. The Enhanced Fujita Scale or EF Scale (Table 11-7) is used to assign a tornado a “rating” based on
estimated wind speeds and related damage. The scale
measures six classifications of tornadoes with increasing magnitude from a 0 to 5. Most (69%) of tornadoes have
an F0 and F1 rating. While only 2% of tornadoes have
an F4 or F5 rating, these tornadoes are responsible for 70% of all tornado-related deaths.41F 42 Table 11-7: Enhanced Fujita Scale
EF Rating
Wind Speed
Estimate
(mph)
Typical Damage
0 65-85 Light damage (gale tornado). Some damage to chimneys and television antennas; twigs and branches break off trees; winds push over shallow-rooted trees; sign boards are damaged.
1 86-110 Moderate damage (weak tornado). Winds peel off roofs; windows break; light trailer homes are pushed off their foundations or overturned; some trees are uprooted or snap; moving autos are pushed off the road; attached garages may be destroyed.
2 111-135 Considerable damage (strong tornado). Roofs are torn off frame houses, leaving strong walls upright; weak rural buildings are demolished; trailer homes are destroyed; large trees snap or are uprooted; railroad boxcars are pushed over; light objects become airborne missiles; cars are blown off highways.
3 136-165 Severe damage (severe tornado). Roofs and some walls are torn off wellconstructed frame structures; some rural buildings are completely demolished; trains are overturned; steel-framed hangars and warehouse-type structures are torn; cars are lifted off the ground; most trees are uprooted, snapped or leveled.
4 166-200 Devastating damage (devastating tornado). Well-constructed frame houses are leveled, leaving piles of debris; steel structures are badly damaged; trees are de-barked by small flying objects; cars and trains are thrown some distances or roll considerable distances; large objects become missiles. 5 Over 200 Incredible damage (incredible tornado). Strong, whole-frame houses are lifted off their foundations and carried considerable distances; steelreinforced concrete structures are badly damaged; automobile-sized missiles are generated and carried through the air >100 meters; trees are debarked.

41 https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/tornadoes/, accessed on September 19, 2024. 42 https://www.weather.gov/mkx/taw-tornado_classification_safety and https://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/#Damage, both accessed most recently in September 2024.

Figure 11-9: Funnel Cloud Over the
Ocean off Venice Beach, Feb. 22, 2005
(AP Photo/Chris Kim/File)

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2025 Climate Change & Severe Weather Hazards Page 11-32 The south coastal region of California, including the Los Angeles Basin, has the greatest incidence of tornadoes in the State, with 46 tornadoes reported in the region between 1950 and June 2024. 42F 43 While these tornadoes were all rated between F0 and F2 (relatively weak) on the Fujita scale, they incurred an estimated $61.195 million in damages.43F
44 Buildings in coastal southern California,
including Santa Monica, in accordance with the most recent California Building Code, are to be designed to withstand wind speeds of between about 90 and 105 miles per hour (mph); the design wind speed for most new residential structures in Santa Monica is 94 mph. These design wind speed values are lower than those used elsewhere in the United States. For example, design wind speed values for the Gulf Coast region (east Texas to Florida), range from about 130 to 180 mph, and the “tornado” alley area from Oklahoma to Minnesota has been assigned wind speed design values of between 110 and 114 mph.44F
45 Although tornado shelters, safe rooms, or basements are not mandatory in Oklahoma, Kansas and other states susceptible to tornado activity, these structures are recommended. No such requirements or recommendations exist for the southern California region.

The vast majority of the tornadoes that have impacted the Los Angeles region occurred in the fall and winter months (Table 11-8). Fewer tornadoes occur during the warmer months primarily due to the stabilizing effect of the marine layer, and the lack of dynamic forcing during the warmer months.

Table 11-8 lists 29 past tornado events within an approximately 20-mile radius of Santa Monica.

Note that several of the tornados listed are part of a group of tornados reported the same day or couple of days, related to a larger storm system that impacted the region at that time. Two of the tornados occurred in Santa Monica. These are shown in bold. Photographs of the damage caused by the 1952 tornado or tornados in Santa Monica can be seen here. The 1952 tornados killed three people and is one of only two tornadic events in California with reported fatalities.

Table 11-8: Tornado Events in the Santa Monica Region
Date Deaths/Injuries Fujita Scale Location; Damages
3/16/1952 3/1 NA
In Santa Monica left 3 dead and caused damage. Reports
suggest two separate tornados touched down. One
damaged several structures and vehicles, the other
scattered four boats in a boatyard at Lincoln and
Olympic Boulevard. One builder was injured. Costs of
damage not provided.
1/18/1955 0/0 NA $2.5K in property damage
5/9/1956 0/1 0 $25K in property damage
5/14/1962 0/0 1 $25K in property damage
11/9/1964 0/0 1 In El Segundo; $2.5K in property damage 11/7/1966 0/10 2 Began near Redondo Beach, ended NE of Compton; >$250K in property damage
4/18/1967 0/0 0 In Santa Monica; $2.5K in property damage, including to power lines and a few homes
2/10/1978 0/0 0 In El Segundo; $0 in property damage
1/31/1979 0/0 0 Near Universal City; $2.5 million in property damage 1/28/1980 0/0 0 In Gardena; $2.5K in property damage

43 https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/ accessed on September 19-20, 2024. 44 Ibid 45 https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/CABC2022P4/chapter-16-structural-design#CABC2022P4_Ch16_Sec1609, accessed November 19, 2024.

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3/29/1982 0/0 1
In South San Gabriel; two-block-wide area of uprooted
trees, downed store signs, substantial roof damage,
fences blown down, power poles down, small avocado
orchards partially destroyed.
11/9/1982 0/0 1
In Malibu; waterspout observed prior to tornado making
landfall. Three different touch points. Major damage to several homes and retail businesses, heavy rain and hail.

Catamaran blown about 125 feet into air. $25K in
property damage.
11/9/1982 0/0 2 In San Fernando Valley; caused about $250K in damage at a department store; $2.5 million in total damages.
11/9/1982 0/0 2 From Long Beach inland to Cerritos; $2.5 million in property damage.
11/9/1982 0/0 0 Small tornado reported in Inglewood; $2.5K in property damage.
3/1/1983 0/30 2
From Inglewood to South Central Los Angeles,
approximately 50 homes and 7 businesses were
damaged. $25 million in damages.
3/1/1983 0/0 0 In South Pasadena, north of Huntington Drive; $250 in damages.
9/30/1983 0/0 0
In Walnut Park, 6 miles SSE of Los Angeles Civic Center; window damage in four homes, torn shingles or broken
roof tiles; the porch of one home was torn from the
house and deposited on the roof; several small trees
uprooted; about $250K in property damage.
9/30/1983 0/3 2
In Hawthorne; severe damage to 8 homes; substantial
damage to 15 homes, and minor damage to 45 homes
and 36 vehicles; one pickup destroyed. Several large
trees uprooted trees. $250K in property damages.
3/19/1991 0/0 0
Small tornado in the Lakewood-Bellflower area near Del
Amo Blvd.; light damage to two roofs that were blown
off, windows, vehicles, trees and power lines blown
down. Total damage cost not provided.
3/20/1992 0/0 1
Small tornado struck a one-block strip of the El Sereno district in Los Angeles; wind speeds up to 100 mph, roof and window damage, uprooted trees, toppled a billboard
onto a car, damaged 10 homes. Total damage cost not
provided.
1/14/1993 0/0 1
Strong winds and intense rain ripped through small
section of Los Angeles area damaging 3 houses, 2 cars,
and uprooting at least 50 trees. $500K in property
damage estimated.
2/7/1994 0/0 0
Weak tornado touched down along Sunland Blvd. and
San Fernando Rd.; window damage, uprooted trees; one
tree fell onto car. $50K in property damages.
4/1/1999 0/0 0 Small tornado touched down in Chatsworth; two mobile homes damaged. Damage cost not provided.
12/28-29/2004 0/0 0
Pacific storm with heavy rain, snow and tornados. On the coastal plain of Los Angeles County, weak tornados were reported in Long Beach, Inglewood and Whittier. The

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tornados only produced minor damage including downed
trees and damaged roofs. Damage costs not provided.
12/12/2014 0/0 0
Weak tornado near Inglewood, west of I-110; the tornado damaged the roof of an apartment complex, two
residential roofs and a steel billboard. Damage costs not provided.
3/22/2023 0/0 1
Weak tornado in Montebello, near intersection of
Washington Blvd. and Maple Ave.; substantial damage to
an industrial warehouse where roof nearly collapsed,
damage to 17 commercial buildings, and numerous
vehicles damaged by flying debris. Damage costs not
provided.
5/4/2023 0/0 0
Weak tornado near Carson; minor damage reported to a
couple of buildings and vehicles. Damage costs not
provided.
5/4/2023 0/0 0
Weak tornado in the community of Compton; one power
line and several tree branches were downed, roof damage to a couple of houses. Damage costs not provided.

Source: NCEI storm event database (https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/) last accessed on September 20, 2024.

The effects of climate change on windstorms remains uncertain. A 2019 study45F 46 reported that climate
change has suppressed Santa Ana winds, but the same research team published new findings in 202146F

47. Their new work shows that while “cold” Santa Ana winds occurring during the winter months have become less common, there is no clear trend for “hot” Santa Ana winds during the fall months (which is also the time period when Santa Ana winds pose the highest threat for wildfires).

These findings may have to be revisited following the strong Santa Ana winds that have been experienced in the Los Angeles region in the past four years during the winter months (see Table 11- 6). What it is clear from the recent wind-fanned wildfires that have caused extensive damage, unhealthy air quality, and loss of life in the region is that the extreme variations in weather brought on by climate change can combine to create the “perfect storm.” Thus, extreme wet winters dominated by atmospheric rivers boost vegetation growth; if these wet years are followed by a drought period characterized by extreme heat and little to no precipitation, the abundant vegetation dies, creating a thick cover of flammable vegetation, or fuel load. If these events are followed by strong winds, a firestorm can easily develop.47F
48 This is discussed in more detail in Section 10.

Projections for tornadoes are similarly unclear. Some research shows that tornadoes and severe thunderstorms are increasing in occurrence in the U.S., with extreme tornado outbreaks especially

46 Guzman‐Morales, J., and Gershunov, A., 2019, Climate change suppresses Santa Ana winds of Southern California and sharpens their seasonality: Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 46, No. 5, pp. 2772-2780, available at https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2018GL080261. 47 Gershunov, A., Guzman Morales, J., Hatchett, B., Guirguis, K., Aguilera, R., Shulgina, T., Abatzoglou, J.T., et al., 2021, Hot and cold flavors of southern California’s Santa Ana winds: their causes, trends, and links with wildfire:

Climate Dynamics, Vol. 57, No. 7, pp. 2233-2248; available at https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00382- 021-05802-z. 48 Lindsay, R., 2025, The weather and climate influences on the January 2025 fires around Los Angeles; article published on 19 February 2025 by NOAA; available at https://www.climate.gov/news-features/eventtracker/weather-and-climate-influences-january-2025-fires-around-los-angeles.

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49 However, other scientists show that tornado trends vary regionally:
tornadoes are becoming more frequent in the Southeast and less frequent in the Great Plains.49F 50 However, due to the relative infrequency of tornadoes in California, we do not yet have an understanding of tornado trends here.

Social Vulnerability to Windstorms
The impacts of windstorms in Southern California range from minor to severe and even lifethreatening. For example, Santa Ana winds are mostly a nuisance to Southern California residents, bringing dust indoors, breaking tree branches, and causing minor damage. For people with respiratory ailments, Santa Ana winds may often mean headaches, sinus pain, difficulty breathing, and even asthma.

Some severe impacts of windstorms include property damage, igniting and spreading fires, toppling trees and powerlines, and disrupting public utilities, telecommunications, and transportation routes.

Falling trees are a particularly common and potentially costly outcome of windstorms. Some tree limbs can break in winds of about 45 mph, meaning that damage can occur in even minor windstorms. Downed trees pose the greatest threat to utilities and infrastructure and, historically, trees downed during a windstorm have been the major cause of power outages in the southern California area. Uprooted trees and downed utility poles can also fall across the public right-of-way disrupting transportation. These events can be major hindrances to emergency response and disaster recovery. For example, if transportation routes are compromised by fallen debris, and loss of power occurs in the area, emergency response facilities like the hospital, fire stations, and the police station may find it difficult to function effectively. In Santa Monica, typical cleanup following a large windstorm event typically costs the City about $5,000.00.50F 51The January 7, 2025 windstorm caused
over $180,000 in costs, including work to clear almost 50 fallen trees, 122 tree limb failures, and transport 375 tons of vegetation debris to appropriate landfills.

Falling or flying debris, falling trees and downed power lines can also directly injure or kill motorists and pedestrians. For example, in 2003, two deaths were blamed on Santa Ana winds: a falling tree struck and killed a woman in San Diego, and a passenger in a vehicle was struck by a flying pickup truck cover (http://cbsnews.com/ January 8, 2003 article).

Windstorms in Southern California, especially Santa Ana winds, are also often connected to wildfires. Because Santa Ana winds occur when the air humidity is low to very low, they can create wildfire-favorable conditions by drying out vegetation and making it more flammable. Santa Ana winds can also help fire and embers travel at an alarming pace, thereby spreading existing fires and posing a serious concern to firefighters. The instances of fire events either stemming from or being

49 Tippett, M.K., Lepore, C., and Cohen, J.E., 2016, More tornadoes in the most extreme US tornado outbreaks: Science, Vol. 354, No. 6318, pp. 1419-1423; available at https://www.science.org/doi/pdf/10.1126/science.aah7393. 50 Gensini, V.A. and Brooks, H.E., 2018, Spatial trends in United States tornado frequency: NPJ Climate and Atmospheric Science, Vol. 1, Article No. 38; available at https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-018-0048-2 and
Graber, M., Trapp, R.J., and Wang, Z., 2024, The regionality and seasonality of tornado trends in the United States: npj Climate and Atmospheric Science, Vol. 7, Issue 1, Article No. 144; available at https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-024-00698-y 51 Lindsay Call, Santa Monica’s Chief Resilience Officer and Emergency Operations Director, personal communication, December 16, 2024.

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Winds occurring during thunderstorms, like tornadoes and microbursts also pose extreme danger to humans and infrastructure. These winds are particularly dangerous to aircraft landing or taking off, and have caused several planes to crash, with resultant loss of life. Tornadoes and microbursts have also been responsible for capsizing and sinking ships, causing structural damage in many communities, lifting roofs off structures, downing electrical lines, and generally causing millions of dollars in damage. Again, tornadoes and microbursts are not nearly as common in California compared to the northeastern and central parts of the United States.

Unlike other natural hazards, there are not spatial patterns of where windstorms occur: a windstorm event may occur anywhere in the City, and windstorm events are not readily predictable. For example, while flooding hazards are generally confined to a discrete area that can be mapped, windstorms may travel in any direction, and are only partly affected by topography (with stronger winds usually observed in canyons and passes, where the winds are funneled by the surrounding topographic highs). Given that we cannot predict when or where a windstorm will occur, nor its intensity, the conservative approach is to assume that a windstorm event can take place anywhere in the Santa Monica area anytime during the year, but preferentially in the fall or winter.

There are differences in vulnerability when winds do occur, however. For example, while any structure may be susceptible to damage (based on its age, condition, and structural design), buildings with weak reinforcements are most susceptible to windstorm damage. People living in older buildings or buildings without modern structural improvements may be more at risk of wind damage.

Mobile homes are also particularly susceptible to windstorm damage, and thus low-income populations may be particularly vulnerable to wind events.

Finally, windstorms may at times necessitate involvement of City maintenance personnel responding to cleanup and repairs during and following such an event, or preceding a windstorm to secure facilities. Higher income areas or areas with higher population may receive priority in the City’s response. In extreme situations, such as if emergency vehicles personnel are unable to pass due to fallen trees or debris, this difference in road clean-up time, could contribute to loss of life.

Activities for Windstorm Mitigation and Response
Windstorm mitigation activities include programs and activities implemented by State and City agencies or individuals to prevent or reduce the severity of impacts from windstorms. As shown on the tables above, one of the most common problems associated with windstorms are power outages resulting from fallen power poles and downed trees and branches. Thus, one of the most useful and common existing mitigation strategies pertain to tree clearance.

Specifically, California law requires utility companies to maintain clearances (specified distances based on the type of voltage running through the line) between electric lines and all vegetation.

Enforcement of the following California Public Resources Code Sections provides guidance on tree regulations: 4291–Reduction of Fire Hazards Around Buildings; 4292–Power Line Hazard Reduction; and 4293–Power Line Clearance Required.

Tree clearance is also an important action for homeowners because many insurance companies do not cover windstorm related damages if the policyholder has refused to allow the hazard to be eliminated. Undergrounding of overhead utility lines can help reduce the impact of windstorms on

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Following several devastating brush fires started and fanned by strong winds (such as the Paradise Fire in northern California in 2018; see Section 8), electrical utility companies now often turn off power in advance of strong wind storm events. This policy limits the potential for downed electric lines to generate a fire that then turns deadly, with the potential to impact a large section of a community. These Public Safety Power Shutoffs (PSPSs), as they are called, can cause hardships and pose risks to vulnerable populations that depend on electric power to run life-saving equipment.

More information on the history and policies related to PSPSs can be obtained from the California Public Utilities Commission.

A windstorm also has the potential to displace residents, which may require the City or relief organizations to provide short-term and/or long-term shelters to accommodate these individuals, in addition to providing for other emergency response activities such as cleanup and repair. This has the potential to impact the City economically, as City funds would have to be tapped into to respond adequately to the needs of the impacted members of the community, in addition to the costs of cleanup and repair.

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SECTION 12: HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

WHY ARE HAZARDOUS MATERIALS A THREAT TO THE CITY OF SANTA MONICA?
Hazardous materials, if used incorrectly, can pose a hazard to human health and the environment.

Hazardous substances occur in chemicals like hydrocarbon fuels, chlorine, pesticides, and herbicides that are used daily and in large quantities by industrial, commercial, manufacturing and military facilities. Households and institutional facilities also use some of these chemicals for a variety of purposes. As a result of this widespread use, releases of these compounds into the environment, either accidentally or intentionally, occur often. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), nationally, the Federal government receives an average of 12 reports of releases of hazardous materials every day.0F
1 Similarly, and based on statistics compiled by the California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services1F
2 , more than 1,260 spills of hazardous materials were reported in California in 2023. In 2022 this number was approximately 1,200, and in 2021, 1,145. As of August 2024, the number of hazardous materials releases reported in the state was approximately 700. These same databases show that in the three full years mentioned above (2021, 2022 and 2023), Santa Monica reported between 17 and 27 leaks annually. Review of the data shows that more than 90% of these spills in Santa Monica are of sewage released from pipe laterals and mains that were damaged by tree roots or foreign matter (paper and baby wipes seem to be the main causes). Other spills reported in the city include gas leaks from damaged pipes, gasoline leaks from faulty gas dispensers, and oil sheens and tar balls reported at the beach.

Although most of these incidents appear to be more of a nuisance than a hazard, materials contained in sewage can pose a threat to human health and the environment, especially if allowed to flow into the storm drain system and eventually the ocean. Containment and cleanup of these spills, however, typically is completed within hours of first observed and reported with limited to no permanent damage. An earthquake, on the other hand, especially if on the Santa Monica fault, has the potential to result in dozens to hundreds of pipe ruptures, releasing natural gas, petroleum oil, and sewage.

Repair of all of the breaks can be anticipated to take weeks. Other hazardous material releases could also occur as a result of strong ground shaking. This report discusses earthquake-induced and transportation-related hazardous materials releases.

Past releases of hazardous substances from leaking underground storage tanks previously impacted the groundwater under Santa Monica, requiring extensive and costly treatment. More recently, researchers have also realized that some chemicals used for a variety of applications, such as stainand water-resistant fabrics and carpeting, cleaning products, paints, and fire-fighting foams, are very persistent in the environment and can pose a threat even if their release occurred decades ago. These substances, referred to as perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), have recently been detected in groundwater pumped from some of the wells that service the city of Santa Monica. Both of these cases are also discussed further in this report.

1 https://www.epa.gov/emergency-response/emergency-response-and-recognizing-hazardous-substance-releases, accessed August 26, 2024. 2
https://www.caloes.ca.gov/office-of-the-director/operations/response-operations/fire-rescue/hazardousmaterials/spill-release-reporting/, accessed August 21, 2024.

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DEFINITIONS
What are Hazardous Materials?
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), hazardous materials consist of substances:

1. that may cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness;

2. may pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of or otherwise managed; and

3. whose characteristics can be measured by a standardized test or reasonably detected by generators of solid waste through their knowledge of their waste.

Hazardous materials also have physical properties that make these substances corrosive, flammable, and/or reactive, and these properties can negatively impact human life and safety (EPA 40 CFR 260.10). In order for a substance to be classified as a hazardous material, it must contain a defined amount of toxic chemicals, with the levels for each compound defined by the EPA.

Because of the high demand for these chemicals, their transport, use, and storage are necessary, with these activities governed by a series of laws and regulations aimed at safely managing their use.

Laws and safety protocols have been and continue to be developed to ensure the safety of workers who have the potential to be exposed to hazardous materials. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is responsible for setting and enforcing safety practices in the workplace, and also provides necessary training to help employers and workers be more aware of the health hazards posed by these chemicals and materials. To further define what hazardous materials are, OSHA and the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) have categorized them into nine classes2F 3 :

1. explosives, which include mass explosion, projectile hazard, minor projectile or fire, minor blast, insensitive explosives3F
4 , and very insensitive explosives,

2. compressed gases, which include flammable gases, nonflammable compressed gases, and poisonous gases,

3. flammable liquids, which include flammable liquids with a flash point below 141° F degrees,
and combustible liquids with a flashpoint between 141°
F and 200°F,

4. flammable solids, which include spontaneously combustible solids, and solids dangerous when wet,

5. oxidizers and organic peroxides,

6. toxic materials, which include materials that are poisonous and infectious agents,

7. radioactive materials, which are broken down into levels 1 through 3 based on the amount of radioactivity they release and the persistence (half-life) of the radioactive material,

8. corrosive materials, which are chemicals (such as acids and bases) that cause visible destruction of or irreversible alteration to living tissue (such as skin) at the site of contact, and have the ability to corrode steel at a rate of 0.25 inches per year, and

3 https://www.osha.com/blog/dot-hazard-classes accessed August-September 2024. 4 Insensitive munitions refer to materials used in war such as guns, ammunition, and bombs that are insensitive to stimuli, such as heat or shock, that could cause an unplanned explosive event (https://www.insensitivemunitions.org/history/introduction/ accessed August 26, 2024).

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9. miscellaneous, which are materials that present a hazard during shipment, such as lithium batteries and substances transported at elevated temperatures, but do not meet the definition of the other eight classes above.

What is a Hazardous Material Release?
A hazardous materials release is an “improper leak, spillage, discharge or disposal” of hazardous materials or substances” posing a significant threat to human health and safety and to the surrounding environment. Releases can be the result of an accident, or of intentional acts of criminality or terrorism.4F
5 Exposure to hazardous materials in the workplace, such as in a manufacturing facility that either generates or uses hazardous materials, is a serious issue and warrants oversight from company leaders and regulatory officials such as OSHA. Exposure in these situations, if a leak occurs, is generally localized and can be avoided with proper education and the enforcement of safety practices. However, hazardous materials are not limited to the bounds of factories, as they are transported from one location to another in vehicles, railroad cars, airplanes, ships, and in pipelines, and are used in a variety of locations including hospitals and other medical facilities, businesses (such as gas stations, dry cleaners, vehicle repair shops), and even in residential households. A hazardous material release could occur at any of these locations, with the potential to impact the health or well-being of individuals in the immediate area. The containment and clean-up of hazardous materials releases require specialized equipment and properly trained individuals. Some releases can be contained and cleaned up relatively quickly, at a cost of tens to thousands of dollars, whereas others require large-scale environmental remediation projects that can last decades and cost millions to hundreds of millions of dollars.5F
6 Conditions Conducive to Hazardous Material Releases
Hazardous substances are used in a variety of applications, often because they either work more effectively than their non-hazardous counterparts, or because there are no eco-friendly alternatives.

Thus, for example, today hospitals use radioactive substances to image the inside of our bodies and make illness diagnoses, and to treat certain diseases and tumors. Chlorine is highly effective in disinfecting water and non-porous surfaces and is thus used in water treatment facilities and as a cleaning compound. Prior to the advent of electric vehicles, gasoline- or diesel-powered cars dominated our roads and freeways, with leaded gas being the norm prior to the mid-1970s. Electric vehicles currently depend on lithium-ion batteries, and while these have a smaller environmental footprint than gas-powered vehicles, both the mining and disposal of lithium release hazardous materials onto the environment.

The types and amounts of hazardous substances have increased over time in response to an increased demand for products that use these materials. In decades past, “out of sight, out of mind” used to be the traditional approach to dealing with trash, sediment, fertilizer-laden irrigation water, used motor oil, unused paint and thinner, and other hazardous substances that people would dump onto the ground, or into the sewer and storm drains. Substances dumped into the storm drain system made their way into drainages, lakes, rivers, and the ocean, endangering aquatic organisms and wildlife dependent on these water sources, and impacting human health. Some substances dumped

5 https://www.dhs.gov/hazardous-materials-release, accessed September 5, 2024. 6 https://www.epa.gov/trinationalanalysis/releases-chemicals, accessed August-September 2024.

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onto the ground made their way into the groundwater, contaminating drinking water resources. Even if only the soils were contaminated by hazardous substances dumped onto the ground, these soils require cleanup, as contaminated soils are unacceptable as growing mediums for crops or as a foundation for buildings.

Partly in response to these past practices, both the Federal and California governments enacted legislation to manage the use, transport and disposal6F 7 of these substances. Some of these significant
legislations include the 1972 Federal Clean Water Act and the California Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act, the 1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), the 1986 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), the Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), the Hazardous Materials Disclosure Program, the Hazardous Materials Incident Response, and the California Hazardous Material Spill/Release Notification Guidance. For detailed information regarding what each of these pieces of legislation cover, refer to the links provided, or Chapter 6 of the Technical Background Report to the City’s Safety Element.

The pieces of legislation listed above task the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and several other Federal, State and local agencies with the responsibility of regulating the handling of waste materials, and/or monitoring the releases of hazardous materials into the air, water or land. Air releases include emissions through confined airstreams such as stacks, pipes or ducts, and fugitive releases that are not confined. To manage air pollutants, the EPA and locally, the South Coast Air Quality Management District (referred to as the South Coast AQMD), have issued standards for emission levels, require the use of scrubbers and other methods to capture pollutants from industrial sources, and monitor air quality. Other efforts include stringent standards to reduce emissions from vehicles and engines, including the use of cleaner-burning fuels.7F 8 Water releases consist of discharges of hazardous materials into bodies of water such as streams, rivers, or ponds. Wastewater discharges from various industries and wastewater treatment plants, known as “point sources8F
9 ,” and from “non-point sources9F
10” are managed through the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Locally, the agency responsible for establishing water quality standards and regulating the discharge of pollutants into State waters is the Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB). All releases or threatened releases of hazardous materials need to be immediately reported to the local office of the RWQCB and the Governor’s Office of Emergency Services. Land disposal includes placing hazardous materials into landfills, injecting substances underground, and surface impoundments. Some standards for land disposal include the use of double liners in landfills, implementation of leak detection systems, and the collection and removal of leachate.

Through the efforts made by the EPA and its State counterparts, including the enactment of regulations and monitoring of known polluting sources, there has been a decrease in the overall amounts of hazardous materials released into the environment. Specifically, the EPA reports that between 2013 and 2022, releases of toxic chemicals from facilities covered in the Toxics Release

7 The use, generation, processing, production, packaging, treatment, storage, transport, emission, discharge, or disposal of a hazardous materials is collectively referred to as “handling” of a hazardous material. 8 https://www.epa.gov/haps/reducing-emissions-hazardous-air-pollutants 9 A point source is a discrete, easily identifiable source of pollution, such as a smokestack or sewer. 10 These are roadways, parking lots, yards, farms, and other non-discrete areas from where pollutants may be carried by rain and urban runoff into canals, rivers, and other bodies of water, and into the soil and groundwater.

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Inventory (TRI) program decreased by 21%, with a 26% decrease in air releases. Moreover, the TRI facilities reported that in 2022 they managed 88.5% of their chemical waste through recycling, energy recovery, treatment and similar practices, with only the remaining 11.5% of their chemical waste released into the environment.10F
11 Thus, although significant improvements have been made, there is still room for improvement. There are other forms of hazardous materials releases that do not occur often, or that occurred several years to decades ago, but whose impacts are still being managed through removal or remediation. These forms of release are described in general terms below. Further down in this section we summarize past releases of hazardous materials in the southern California region, and specific examples of recent past releases of contaminants in Santa Monica proper.

Releases from Leaking Underground Storage Tanks
Leaking underground storage tanks (LUSTs) have been recognized as contributors to groundwater contamination since the early 1980s. Leaks from underground storage tanks, even small leaks, allow gasoline compounds, solvents or other substances to migrate out and impact the surrounding soil.

Over time, driven by gravity and/or the infiltration of rain water, the leaked substances will make their way into the groundwater if the sediments are water-bearing. This contaminated groundwater then can make its way into municipal wells, which, if unrecognized, can have a critical impact on the health of those that depend on this water source. With the rising cases of contaminated water wells during the 1980s, programs and regulations were developed to remove damaged underground storage tanks, clean up the contaminated soils and groundwater, and install new storage tanks and leakage monitoring systems to reduce the potential for future leaks.

Spills Related to Transportation Accidents
Large quantities of hazardous materials are transported daily in the United States. Although most deliveries reach their destination safely, incidents do occur. According to data collected and compiled by the U.S. Department of Transportation Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, in 2023, 8,437 hazardous materials incidents occurred during transit in U.S. highways, with more than 200 of those occurring in California. These incidents resulted in 12 fatalities, 14 hospitalized injuries, 50 non-hospitalized injuries, and damages of more than $39 million. Nearly twice as many incidents (15,858) occurred loading, unloading, and during in-transit storage of hazardous materials, but all of these other incidents combined caused a total of 23 injuries (5 requiring hospitalization), no fatalities, and less than $10 million in damages. The figures for 2023 are typical of the past ten years, with the annual number of in-transit incidents between 2015 and 2023 ranging between about 4,700 and 8,500, and damages amounting to between $35 million and nearly $1 billion.11F
12 These costs do not include the economic and personal disruption resulting from immobilized traffic and/or evacuation of businesses and homes near the site of the incident.

Hazardous materials releases that occur as a result of vehicular accidents include spills of fluids from the vehicles involved (gasoline, diesel, battery acid, hydraulic fluid, etc.), the cargo itself, or a combination of both.12F
13 The cargo materials that are most often involved in transportation incidents are flammable-combustible liquids and corrosive materials.

11 https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/toxic-chemical-releases-have-declined-21-10-years-according-new-toxicsrelease, accessed in August-September, 2024. 12 https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/hazmat-program-management-data-and-statistics/data-operations/incident-statistics, accessed September 9, 2024. 13 https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop08058/fhwahop08058.pdf

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All transportation of hazardous materials needs to be conducted under strict protocol in accordance with requirements set forth by the Department of Transportation (DoT) and spelled out in the Federal Code of Regulations (CFR) Title 49, Parts 171-180. Vehicles carrying hazardous materials are required to have placards that indicate at a glance the chemicals being carried, and whether or not they are corrosive, flammable or explosive. Safety data sheets (SDSs) for each substance being transported need to be carried by the conductor. These SDSs are designed to help emergency response personnel identify the most appropriate action to contain the specific substances involved in the spill, should one occur. In California, the California Highway Patrol is in charge of spills that occur in or along freeways, with Caltrans, the local fire departments and local sheriffs providing additional resources as needed.

Releases Due to Damaged Pipelines
Pipelines are used to transport a variety of hazardous materials including crude oil, refined petroleum products and other petrochemicals, and natural gas and other gases. If a pipeline carrying hydrocarbon liquids (such as crude oil or gasoline) breaks or springs a leak, the liquid released can pose a variety of risks to the environment and to the population adjacent to the section of damaged pipeline. Specifically, hydrocarbon liquids can contaminate the surrounding soil and nearby surface waters, and could potentially impact the groundwater also. Vapors associated with these substances, if heavier than air, can collect in and displace the oxygen in low or enclosed areas. If people or animals are trapped in those low-lying areas, they could asphyxiate. Hydrocarbon vapors can also be flammable or combustible, and are often mixed with other chemicals that are also hazardous.

Exposure to a hydrocarbon product released from a damaged pipeline can be by a variety of pathways, including inhalation, ingestion, skin absorption, and skin or eye contact. Other products transported via pipelines may be volatile and extremely flammable (such as aviation gasoline), extremely irritant to skin, eyes, and lungs (such as anhydrous ammonia), and toxic or highly corrosive (such as hydrogen sulfide).

Pipeline operators are responsible for the continuous maintenance and monitoring of their pipelines to evaluate and repair, when necessary, corroded sections of pipe that no longer meet pipelinestrength criteria. All excavations or drilling operations near pipelines, or anywhere else, for that matter, should be conducted only after proper clearance has been provided by the appropriate utility agencies or companies. California law requires that all excavations be cleared in advance. This is done locally by Underground Service Alert of Southern California, also referred to as DigAlert.

Their telephone number is 8-1-1. Calls need to be made at least two (2) working days (48 hours) before digging, and the proposed excavation area needs to be delineated or marked.

Pipelines can be damaged during an earthquake, often the result of permanent ground deformations, including fault rupture, liquefaction, landslides, and consolidation of loose granular soils. Tectonic uplift or subsidence can also impact a pipeline by either breaking it, or changing its gradient, which can lead to reversals in flow of the substance inside. Seismic shaking typically has less of an impact on buried utilities than it does on aboveground structures, but leaks, especially at pipe joints or welds, have been reported in past earthquake events.13F 14 14 For a report with additional references on seismic shaking-induced damage to pipes, refer to https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226844920_Estimation_of_Earthquake_Damage_to_Buried_Pipelines_C aused_by_Ground_Shaking

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Releases Due to Earthquakes
Isolated unauthorized or accidental releases of hazardous materials can occur at any time, but earthquakes have the potential to cause several incidents at the same time. Strong seismic shaking can lead to the release of hazardous materials by damaging storage facilities and transport infrastructure. During an earthquake, chemical storage tanks could buckle or, if improperly secured and fastened, could easily be punctured and/or tipped over. Improperly segregated chemicals could react forming a toxic gas cloud. Even small amounts of chemicals, if kept in breakable containers and stored together (like in the same chemical closet at a high school chemistry lab or the same aisle at the grocery store), could result in a potentially hazardous situation if the containers break and the chemicals react with each other. As mentioned above, pipelines are especially vulnerable to seismic damage as they can be pulled apart or ruptured by strong ground motion and surface ground deformation. Crude oil and natural gas lines pose a significant hazard due to the high number of pipelines in urban environments and because leaks from ruptured lines can lead to secondary fires.

A key point to remember regarding the management of hazardous materials spills in the aftermath of an earthquake is that it is substantially more difficult to do so than under non-earthquake conditions. Hazardous material response teams responding to a release as a result of an earthquake have to deal with potential structural and non-structural problems of the buildings housing the hazardous materials, potential leaks of natural gas from ruptured pipes, and/or downed electrical lines or equipment that could create sparks and cause a fire. When two hazards with potentially high negative consequences happen at the same time, the challenges of managing each are greatly increased. During an earthquake response, hazardous material emergencies become an additional threat that must be integrated into the response management system.

Inappropriate or Accidental Use of Hazardous Materials in Households Households use significant quantities of chemicals and hazardous materials that can pose a health hazard and can be damaging to the environment. Products such as detergents, bleach, furniture polishers, oven cleaners, bathroom cleaners, medicines, cosmetics, and bug repellants and poisons contain hazardous substances that can be toxic, corrosive, reactive or flammable. Other products often found in homes, such as batteries, paint products, and solvents, can be corrosive, reactive, or explosive.

These products are generally safe when used in accordance with the directions on their labels, but can be hazardous if used or disposed of inappropriately. A common issue is when different cleaning products (such as bleach and ammonia) are mixed together or applied to a surface at the same time, and the chemical reactions produce gases that cause acute inflammation of the nose and lungs, burn the skin, and/or irritate the eyes. Cleaning products can also impact indoor air quality by producing irritating vapors (volatile compounds) that can cause or aggravate asthma, allergies, and other respiratory ailments. Many cleaning products are dangerous, even potentially fatal, if ingested, as evidenced by the thousands of children, teens and older adults that have been admitted to hospitals in the past decade after ingesting laundry pods either accidentally, or as a result of a dare.14F 15 The U.S. Fire Administration reports that an average of about 1,700 fires in homes occur annually as a result of chemical reactions or spontaneous combustion.15F 16 Solvents and oils used to clean or

15 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumption_of_Tide_Pods; accessed October 10, 2024. 16 https://www.usfa.fema.gov/prevention/home-fires/prevent-fires/home-hazardous-materials/; accessed October 10, 2024.

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refinish furniture are known to be especially prone to spontaneous combustion. Lithium-ion battery fires are becoming increasingly common. In New York City, damaged or overheated lithium-ion batteries have become a prime source of house fires, prompting the City to enact a series of regulations aimed to increase the safety of the lithium-ion batteries that power the ubiquitous ebikes and e-scooters.16F 17 The improper disposal of hazardous materials can also have negative health consequences for sanitation workers and other members of the community if exposed to these substances, in addition to causing damage to the environment. Thus, all unused and unwanted hazardous materials should be disposed of at a hazardous waste disposal facility. Chemicals should never be dumped down the toilet, drains, or sewage, and should not be burned in open dumps or incinerators.

HISTORICALLY AND LOCALLY SIGNIFICANT SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

RELEASES OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Historically, there have been many releases of hazardous materials in the southern California area.

Most of these releases are due to human actions, however, some of the larger releases have occurred due to natural causes such as earthquakes. Some of the more significant releases reported in southern California are listed below, with an emphasis on earthquake-related releases going back several decades, and transportation releases during the past five years. The list also includes a summary of the hazardous material spill reports compiled and reported by the Governor’s Office of Emergency Services for the years between 2021 and June 2024 for the city of Santa Monica. 1987 Releases Related to the Whittier Narrows Earthquake The magnitude (M) 5.9 Whittier Narrows earthquake struck on October 1, 1987 (see Section 6).

There was a total of thirty emergency releases of hazardous materials reported as a result of this earthquake. One of the most significant releases involved leakage of about two-thirds of a 1-ton container of chlorine at a facility in Santa Fe Springs. Another significant release occurred at the California State University, Los Angeles Campus; this involved the spillage of several chemicals that resulted in structural fire, and asbestos contamination. Southern California Gas also reported a total of 1,411 natural gas line breaks.
1994 Releases Related to the Northridge Earthquake
The M 6.8 Northridge earthquake struck early in the morning on January 17, 1994. Sixty emergency releases of hazardous materials occurred as a result of this moderate earthquake, however, most of them were not covered by the news media. One of the most significant releases of hazardous materials was the result of a section of railroad track that was displaced approximately 4 inches, causing a train to derail. A total of 29 train cars were involved in the derailment; 13 of the cars carried sulfuric acid, and one of them spilled 2,000 gallons of the compound. Sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive substance that can cause severe skin burns, irritate the eyes potentially causing blindness, impact the nose and lungs causing breathing difficulties if inhaled, and damage to internal organs if ingested. In concentrated form it can also be potentially explosive. Additionally, 1,000 gallons of diesel fuel spilled from the derailed train. Petroleum oil pipelines and natural gas lines

17 https://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/03/nyregion/e-bike-lithium-battery-fires-safety-nyc.html#; accessed October 10, 2024.

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were also affected by this earthquake. Roughly 230,000 gallons of oil were spilled and 752 natural gas lines broke as a result of this seismic event.
2019 405-Freeway Closure due to Overturned Truck
Early in the morning on March 10, 2019, the driver of a propane truck lost control of his vehicle, crashed into the center divider, and rolled the truck over onto its side. This occurred on the I-405 South, just south of the Burbank Boulevard on-ramp. All northbound and southbound lanes were closed for approximately 6 hours. During this time, the truck was lifted to its upright position and the propane was offloaded into another truck.17F
18 2020 405-Freeway Closure due to Hazardous Spill
On January 23, 2020, a package containing hazardous materials fell off of a truck traveling on the I-405 near Inglewood, California. All northbound and southbound lanes of the freeway were closed while officials determined the contents of the spill and cleaning crews removed the hazardous material. The freeway closure lasted for approximately 4 hours between 11 AM and 3 PM.18F 19 2020 Hazardous Material Spills
In 2020, the California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services reported a total of 1,166 spills in Los Angeles County, with 20 occurring in the city of Santa Monica. Twelve of these incidents involved spills of sewage from damaged mains and laterals. Four of the incidents reported were for leaks of natural gas from damaged pipelines, with the damage typically caused by post-diggers or backhoes. Two of the incidents involved callers reporting tar balls at the beach, in one case spread over a relatively large (approximately 1-square-mile) area. One incident involved the potential release of diesel fuel from a water craft that ran aground, and one incident involved a truck bottoming out, damaging its fuel tank in the process and releasing an estimated 200 gallons of diesel onto the soil.
2021 Hazardous Material Spills
In 2021, the California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services reported a total of 1,144 spills in Los Angeles County, with 25 occurring in the city of Santa Monica. A large percentage of the incidents in Santa Monica (21 out of 25) involved releases of sewage onto roadways, alleys, parking lots, and in a few cases, storm drains, due to blockages to the sewer mains or laterals. One incident involved an unknown chemical that the caller reported had been “spilled in the garage of their apartment building” and had melted their tires when they drove through it. Another incident was related to an unknown individual dumping an unknown amount of oil into a drainage ditch, which, according to the caller, had been going on for at least six months prior to the call. The type of oil was unknown although the database reports it as petroleum-based. A natural gas leak occurred in April 2021 when a boring machine struck a 16-inch steel main gas line while installing communication wires. The gas leak required the mandatory evacuation of two residential buildings; closure of several road sections while the leak was contained and the pipe was repaired; and the multi-day power outage prompted the voluntary evacuation of residents of several nearby blocks (see Figure 12-1 and Photos 12-1 and 12-2). This incident resulted in the activation of the City’s Emergency Operations Center to coordinate multi-department and utility agency response and

18 https://lafd.org/news/propane-tanker-overturns-405-freeway-sherman-oaks; accessed in June 2024. 19 https://patch.com/california/redondobeach/405-freeway-shut-down-due-hazmat-spill; accessed in June 2024.

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resident assistance. Lastly, one of the incidents involved the report of an oil sheen and numerous tar balls washing up on the shore.

Figure 12-1: Map of the impacted area where a
multi-day power outage was required to
complete repairs to the gas main break. Actual
damage occurred on Lipton Avenue at Stanford
Street.

Photo 12-1: View to the northwest along
Stanford Street, from just south of Lipton
Avenue, of the street closures and potholing
required to fix the gas main.

Photo 12-2: View of damaged gas main under repair.
2022 Hazardous Material Spills
In 2022, the California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services reported a total of 1,207 spills in Los Angeles County, with 27 occurring in the city of Santa Monica. All but four of these spills were related to damaged sewer lines that released raw sewage onto the streets and/or nearby storm drains.

Two of the spills reported were for damage to gas lines; one caught fire and required the evacuation of two nearby buildings, the other required the evacuation of approximately 100 people and closure of the street until the gas line was fixed. Another leak was associated with the failure of an electric transformer during a storm, releasing petroleum product that, because of the rain, flowed into an adjacent storm drain. One call was for tar balls and oil sheen observed at the beach. 2023 Hazardous Material Spills
In 2023, the California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services reported a total of 1,266 spills in Los Angeles County, with 17 occurring in the city of Santa Monica. Twelve of the leaks reported

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were for sewage released from damaged sewage mains or laterals; most of these leaks amounted to no more than 500 gallons of sewage. One incident involved the release of about 10,000 gallons of sewage onto a bike path and sand landscape as a result of multiple pump failures. One incident involved the report of tar balls washing up on the beach, and another report was filed by a resident who observed dark colored oil (petroleum) at the beach. Finally, one incident was related to the mechanical failure of a shaft releasing about 2 tablespoons of petroleum-based server oil into Santa Monica Bay.

July 2024 Closure of I-15 due to Truck Fire
Early in the morning of Friday, July 26, 2024, a truck transporting six industrial-grade lithium-ion batteries on the back of a trailer crashed, causing the batteries to catch fire. Considering the potential danger of this fire, California Highway Patrol initiated a “hard” closure of interstate 15 (I-15) between Barstow and Baker. All northbound and southbound lanes were closed. Hazmat cleaning crews worked tirelessly to remove the hazardous material. The I-15 opened once again early Sunday morning, causing this shutdown to last approximately 48 hours.19F 20 The highway closure severely
impacted travel times for those travelling north or south on the I-15. 2024 Hazardous Material Spills
Between January and July of 2024, the California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services reported a total of 703 spills in Los Angeles County, with 11 occurring in the city of Santa Monica. Six of these incidents were related to leaks of raw sewage from damaged mains or laterals. One of the incidents was for an unusually large number of tar balls of different sizes washing up onto the beach.

Another incident involved a vehicular crash onto a gas meter, releasing natural gas. Residents from 12 houses in the area were evacuated while repairs were conducted by Southern California Gas. A business on Colorado Avenue discovered that water from an unknown source had been collecting in a subterranean pit designed to collect and pump rainwater from their underground parking structure. The water was chemically tested and found to contain solvents (trichloroethylene [TCE] and tetrachloroethene [PCE}). The water, which had previously been released to a storm drain, was to be collected into a 20,000-gallon tank while a more permanent solution was implemented. The remaining two incidents included the release of 5 to 10 gallons of gasoline onto the floor of a gas station while a customer was re-fueling their vehicle, and the report of an oil caddy under a vehicle leaking onto the asphalt. In both of these cases, the leaks were contained with sand bags and absorbent pads, and kitty litter was used to clean up the spills.

September 2024 Freeway Closure due to Truck Fire
On September 26, 2024, a truck carrying a load of lithium-ion batteries overturned on the 47 Freeway at Navy Way, east of the Vincent Thomas bridge on Terminal Island. The lithium batteries ignited, with the resulting fire forcing the closure of the freeway and bridge for more than 30 hours.

Firefighters eventually moved the rig container with the burning batteries to an open lot near the Los Angeles Fire Department Station 40 on Terminal Island, where the batteries were allowed to burn out. Lithium battery fires run exceptionally hot and require very large amounts of water to extinguish.

Water was not used in this case in an effort to not spread hazardous materials into the waterways or other areas. This incident had a significant impact on Port of Los Angeles operations, with several terminals closed for more than 24 hours.

20 https://www.8newsnow.com/news/local-news/truck-fire-hazmat-situation-closes-i-15-between-las-vegas-losangeles/

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HAZARDOUS MATERIALS RELEASE ASSESSMENT FOR SANTA MONICA Hazard Identification
The primary concerns associated with a hazardous materials release are both the short- and longterm impacts to the public from exposure to the hazardous substance(s) that was released. The shortterm impacts are particularly concerning if the substance released is a toxic gas at normal temperatures and pressures. Long-term concerns are associated with substances that could impact the area’s groundwater resources, especially substances that do not break down quickly and accumulate both in the environment and in organisms (environmentally persistent). Thus, the first step in the effective management of hazardous substances is to know which businesses or facilities generate, use, store or transport hazardous materials, and the types and quantities of substances that are being generated, used, stored or transported in the City. This is discussed further in the following subsections.

Then, the best way to reduce the risk posed by a hazardous material release is the proactive enforcement of the stringent regulations that have been developed by both Federal and State governments governing the manufacturing, storage, transport, and use of hazardous materials. The city of Santa Monica, like all of Los Angeles County, observes the most current version of the California Fire Code (currently the 2022 edition that became effective on January 1, 2023) for the handling of hazardous materials. Risk minimization actions often used include secondary containment; segregation of chemicals to reduce reactivity during a release; sprinkler and alarm systems; monitoring, venting and auto shutoff equipment; and treatment requirements for toxic gas releases. The Santa Monica Fire Department conducts compliance inspections of regulated facilities on an annual basis.

Generators of Hazardous Materials
Given that knowledge of the substances being used is of paramount importance, all businesses that handle more than a specified amount of hazardous materials, a mixture containing hazardous materials, or extremely hazardous materials are required to submit a Hazardous Materials Business Plan (HMBP) to the local Certified Unified Program Agency (CUPA). The CUPA with responsibility for the City of Santa Monica is the Santa Monica Fire Department (SMFD). The reportable quantities or types of hazardous materials that trigger the requirement for a HMBP are listed below:
• Any business that at any one time in the course of a year uses, generates, processes, produces, treats, stores, emits, or discharges a hazardous material in quantities at or exceeding:
 55 gallons or more of a liquid;
 500 pounds or more of a solid; or
 200 cubic feet (compressed) of gas
• Any business that handles, stores, or uses Category (I) or (II) pesticides, as defined by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), regardless of amount. • Any business that handles Department of Transportation (DOT) Hazard Class 1 (Explosives, as defined in Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations) regardless of amount. • Any business that handles extremely hazardous substances in quantities exceeding the threshold planning quantity, as listed in Title 40 of the Federal Code of Regulations, Part 355. • Any business subject to the EPCRA (also known as SARA Title III). Generally, EPCRA includes facilities that handle hazardous substances above 10,000 pounds, or extremely hazardous substances above threshold planning quantities. Some exceptions include retail gas stations with

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up to 75,000 gallons of gasoline or 100,000 gallons of diesel if their underground storage tanks meet the 1998 upgrade requirements.
• Any business that handles radioactive materials in quantities for which an emergency plan is required to be adopted, pursuant to Parts 30, 40 or 70 of Chapter 10, Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), or pursuant to any regulations adopted by the State in accordance with those regulations.

All HMBPs need to be certified and/or updated annually, by September 1st of each year, with plans submitted electronically, or within 30 days of a change in inventory, any change in site conditions that would impact emergency response, a change in business location or mailing address, a change in the emergency contact person, change of ownership, or a change in business name. HMBPs are required to provide, at a minimum, the following information, and all businesses that handle hazardous materials must have a copy of their plan readily available onsite:
1) The business owner/operator, and 24/7 contact information for key personnel 2) Description of the business activities conducted at the facility 3) Inventory of the hazardous materials used at the facility 4) A site map that depicts hazardous materials handling and storage areas, loading areas, internal roads, adjacent streets, storm and sewer drains, access and exit points, emergency shutoffs, evacuation staging areas, and location of emergency response equipment. The site map should depict this information in a Cartesian frame of reference, or at least state where north is relative to the facility.
5) The emergency response plans and procedures, including contingency plans, if any, to be implemented in the event of a reportable release or threatened release of a hazardous material 6) Employee training plans and documentation that employees have been trained in safety procedures in the event of a release or threatened release of a hazardous material. All new employees need to be trained, and existing employees need to take annual refresher courses.

Information regarding potential chemical hazards in the area can be obtained from the City’s CUPA, and from the EPA, per the requirements of the Federal Emergency Planning and Community RightTo-Know Act (EPCRA) of 1986, and the Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). In accordance with the EPCRA, manufacturers are required to report to the EPA the release of any of more than 600 designated toxic chemicals to the air, soil or water. Manufacturers are also required to report the off-site transfer of waste for treatment or disposal at another facility. This information is maintained and published by the EPA so that communities can prepare to respond to chemical spills, hold companies accountable, and make informed decisions as to how these chemicals are being handled. This list is referred to as the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI). There is only one facility in the city of Santa Monica that is listed in the TRI. This facility is Associated Ready Mixed Concrete, Inc. (see Table 12-1), and the waste that this business handles via recycling is lead and lead compounds.

The RCRA is the principal Federal law that regulates the generation, management and transportation of hazardous waste. Facilities or businesses that produce hazardous waste are generally classified based on the quantity of hazardous waste being produced. A small quantity generator as a facility that produces between 100 and 1,000 kilograms (Kg) of hazardous waste per month (approximately equivalent to between 220 and 2,200 pounds, or between 27 and 275 gallons). A “conditionally exempt” small quantity generator is a business that generates 220 pounds (27 gallons) or less of

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hazardous waste per month. Since some of these facilities are often small, start-up businesses that come and go, the list of small-quantity generators in a particular area typically changes over time.

Sometimes, a facility remains, but the name of the business changes with new ownership. These facilities may include dry cleaners, auto repair shops, medical/dental facilities, hospitals, schools, and metal plating shops. The most recent (June 2024) list of small-quantity generators in the city of Santa Monica included 181 sites. These facilities are not listed on Table 12-1.

Facilities that produce over 1,000 Kg (2,200 pounds or about 275 gallons) of hazardous waste per month are large-quantity generators. If a large-quantity generator produces, transports or stores waste that can cause harm to humans or the environment, then the facility is fully regulated under RCRA.

Waste that does not meet these criteria is not classified as hazardous, but it is still subject to certain management requirements. As of June 2024, there were five facilities in Santa Monica that were listed as RCRA large-quantity generators, and 30 sites that were listed as non-RCRA large quantity generators. These sites are listed on Table 12-1 and are shown on Figure 12-2. Significantly, there are no known abandoned hazardous waste sites in the city of Santa Monica (referred to as Superfund sites).

Table 12-1: TRI Site, and Large-Quantity Generators (LQGs) of Hazardous Materials in the City of Santa Monica
Facility Name; Street Address Zip Code EPA ID Type Facility Associated Ready Mixed Concrete, Inc.; 1620 19th Street CAL000378724 TRI Annenberg Community Beach House;
415 Pacific Coast Hwy. CAC002639258 RCRA LQG
Kite Pharma (formerly Agensys, Inc.); 1800 Stewart St. CAL000361097 RCRA LQG BVA; 1522 Broadway Ave. CAD981440654 RCRA LQG
Courtesy Cleaners; 720 Montana Ave. CAD981581523 RCRA LQG CVS Pharmacy #3903; 3202 Wilshire Blvd. CAR000232496 RCRA LQG CVS Pharmacy #9608; 2505 Santa Monica Blvd. CAR000229468 RCRA LQG CVS Pharmacy #11178; 500 Wilshire Blvd. CAR000303321 RCRA LQG CVS Pharmacy #9726; 1411 Lincoln Blvd. CAR000032474 RCRA LQG MOOZCOMP; 1639 Euclid St. CAP000323709 RCRA LQG
Pioneer Magnetics; 3122 Nebraska St. CAD981667843 RCRA LQG Rite Aid #5490; 2412 Pico Blvd. CAL000380425 RCRA LQG
Providence Saint John’s Health Center; 1328 22nd St. CAD072945850 RCRA LQG Santa Monica Audi; 1020 Santa Monica Blvd. CAD133604967 RCRA LQG Santa Monica Business Park Watt; 2716 Ocean Park Blvd. CAR000181339 RCRA LQG Santa Monica Fire Station #2; 222 Hollister Ave. CAD981570500 RCRA LQG Santa Monica Service Center; 1721 22nd St. CA0000562140 RCRA LQG Santa Monica - UCLA Medical Center; 1250 16th St. CAL000213704 RCRA LQG Seritage Growth Properties; 302 Colorado Ave. CAP000302836 RCRA LQG Target Store T3338; 1610 Wilshire Blvd. CAR000109470 RCRA LQG Target Store T3344; 420 Broadway CAR000318709 RCRA LQG
Tesla Santa Monica; 1100 Colorado Ave. CAR0000172228 RCRA LQG Volkswagen Santa Monica Inc.; 2440 Santa Monica Blvd. CAD066237082 RCRA LQG Vons 2002; 1311 Wilshire Blvd. CAE000243535 RCRA LQG
Big Blue Bus Maintenance Facility; 1660 7th St. CAD981461312 Non-RCRA LQG Fleet Maintenance - City Yard; 2500 Michigan Ave Bldg. 5 CAD981461254 Non-RCRA LQG Honda Santa Monica; 1337 Euclid St. CAL000447293 Non-RCRA LQG Jaguar Land Rover Santa Monica; 3300 Olympic Blvd. CAL000461319 Non-RCRA LQG Jiffy Lube #1379; 2344 Pico Blvd. CAL000274398 Non-RCRA LQG

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Facility Name; Street Address Zip Code EPA ID Type Facility Lexus Santa Monica; 1631 9th St. CAL000334024 Non-RCRA LQG Pep Boys #1672; 2411 Pico Blvd. CAL000388519 Non-RCRA LQG Santa Monica Buick GMC; 1717 Santa Monica Blvd. CAL000448518 Non-RCRA LQG Santa Monica Community College General Campus;
1900 Pico Blvd. CAD038735049 Non-RCRA LQG
Santa Monica Ford; 1402 Santa Monica Blvd. CAD981395312 Non-RCRA LQG Santa Monica Motor Group; 3219 Santa Monica Blvd. CAL000462924 Non-RCRA LQG Santa Monica Municipal Airport;
3223 Donald Douglas Loop South CAL000200560 Non-RCRA LQG Subaru of Santa Monica; 1229 Santa Monica Blvd. CAL000409548 Non-RCRA LQG Toyota of Santa Monica; 801 Santa Monica Blvd. CAL000263933 Non-RCRA LQG Valvoline Instant Oil Change GN0021;
1757 Lincoln Blvd. CAL000370607 Non-RCRA LQG
Volvo of Santa Monica; 1631 Santa Monica Blvd. CAL000360347 Non-RCRA LQG W.I. Simonson Mercedes Benz; 1330 Colorado Ave. CAL000300358 Non-RCRA LQG Sources: EPA’s database search for Large-Quantity Generators (LGQ) in the city of Santa Monica (https://rcrapublic.epa.gov/rcrainfoweb/action/modules/hd/handlerindex and https://siteportal.calepa.ca.gov/nsite/map/help) based on a database search performed on June 26, 2024 and City staff input regarding some sites that are no longer active.

Information on non-RCRA sites in Santa Monica provided by D. Bernhard from the City of Santa Monica (personal communication, July 8-9, 2024).

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Leaking Underground Storage Tanks (LUSTs) and Cleanup Program Sites Historically, leaking underground storage tanks (LUSTs) were one of the primary causes of groundwater contamination by gasoline compounds and solvents. These leaks were typically the result of corroded single-walled steel tanks fitted with pipes that easily detached from the tanks, and lacked monitoring devices that could have alerted gas station operators if the tanks were leaking.

During the late 1990s and early 2000s, significant amounts of gasoline additives (Methyl tert-Butyl Ether [MTBE] and tert-Butyl Alcohol [TBA]) derived from LUSTs at various gasoline stations were detected in water pumped from several of the groundwater wells in the Charnock Subbasin that provide drinking water to the city (City of Santa Monica Annual Water Quality Report, 2022). When the contaminants were first detected in 1996, the City was forced to cease production from the impacted wells and rely instead primarily on imported groundwater while the contaminated groundwater was remediated. Industrial contamination was also detected in the Olympic wellfield.

In 2006, the City reached a settlement with the responsible parties, and in 2010, the City established a groundwater monitoring program that tests on a quarterly basis the City’s groundwater for a variety of chemicals. The impacted wells are now back in production.

Cleanup of LUST-impacted sites is a long and expensive process. In cases where only the soil is contaminated, the stained soil is generally excavated and replaced with clean soil, and the contaminated soil is shipped to a facility that accepts hazardous materials. The best remediation technique for groundwater depends on the type and extent of the contamination, and the aquifer impacted. In general, however, contaminated groundwater is either extracted and disposed of at a facility that can treat the contaminants, pumped and treated onsite, or remediated with in-situ techniques. Progress on these cleanup efforts for individual sites can be obtained from the Statewide inventory of LUSTs called GeoTracker, an online database maintained by the California Regional Water Quality Control Board (CRWQCB) in cooperation with the Governor’s Office of Emergency Services. The LUSTs listed in GeoTracker consist almost entirely of fuel-contaminated sites which are regulated pursuant to Title 23 of the California Code of Regulations, Chapter 16, Article 11. As of July 10, 2024, Geotracker listed eight (8) open and 114 closed LUST cases in the city of Santa Monica. Of the eight (8) open sites in the LUST database, three (3) are in the remediation phase, three (3) are in the site assessment phase, one (1) is in the verification monitoring phase, and one (1) is eligible for closure. The eight (8) open cases are listed in Table 12-2, and their approximate locations are shown on Figure 12-2.

As of July 10, 2024, Geotracker also listed 16 open and six (6) closed cleanup program sites in the city of Santa Monica. Cleanup Program Sites include all "non-federally owned" sites that are regulated under the State Water Resources Control Board's Site Cleanup Program and/or similar programs conducted by each of the nine Regional Water Quality Control Boards. Cleanup Program Sites are varied and include but are not limited to pesticide and fertilizer facilities, rail yards, ports, equipment supply facilities, metals facilities, industrial manufacturing and maintenance sites, dry cleaners, bulk transfer facilities, refineries, mine sites, landfills, RCRA/CERCLA cleanups, and some brownfields. Unauthorized releases detected at Cleanup Program Sites are highly variable and include but are not limited to hydrocarbon solvents, pesticides, perchlorate, nitrate, heavy metals, and petroleum constituents, to name a few. The open cleanup program sites in the city of Santa Monica are listed in Table 12-2, and their approximate locations are shown on Figure 12-2.

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Table 12-2: Open Leaking Underground Fuel Tank (LUST) and Cleanup Program Sites in the City of Santa Monica Site Name Address Site Type State Case No.
or Global ID Case Type Status, Contaminant
Date Leak
Discovered
0BArco #1946 332 Pico Blvd. LUST Site T0603739924 G 3, P 4/15/2005 Argo Realty Property 1661 Lincoln Blvd. LUST Site T0603701383 G 3, G 11/2/1987 Bonus Car Wash 2800 Lincoln Blvd. LUST Site T0603701428 G 3, G 6/30/1989 Snyder Diamond 1399 Olympic Blvd. LUST Site T10000001526 G 7, D, G 8/5/2009 Former Auto Repair Facility 1818-1824 Lincoln Blvd. LUST Site T10000019936 G 2, G 7/5/2022 Former Let Em’ Eat Cake Facility 1804 Lincoln Blvd. LUST Site T10000019937 G 2, G 7/6/2022 World Oil Station No. 16 and
Chevron #9-9266 1801 & 1732 Lincoln Blvd. LUST Site T10000013826 U 2, G 12/3/2019 Shell Service Station 1866 Lincoln Blvd. LUST Site T0603708873 G 5, G 3/9/2004 1501 Wilshire Blvd 1501 Wilshire Blvd Cleanup Program Site T100000011925 U 2, U 6/13/2018 1BBoeing Co. 3000 Ocean Park Blvd. Cleanup Program Site SLT4307472 S, G 4, P (TCE) 9/1/1998 Hallmark Cleaners 1907 Wilshire Blvd. Cleanup Program Site T10000011533 S 4, P (PCE) 4/9/2018 Verizon Santa Monica Plant Yard (AKA
Former Boeing/Douglas Plant – A7) 2902 Exposition Blvd. Cleanup Program Site SLT4307573 S, G, O 4, G, P 2/2/1998 Bergamot Property 2500 Olympic Blvd. Cleanup Program Site SLT4130A2335 S, G 6, P 1/2/1965 Metropolitan Cleaners 2003 Lincoln Blvd. Cleanup Program Site T0603701424 G 6, S 12/27/1987 Neighborhood Storage Associates, LLC 1707 Cloverfield Blvd. Cleanup Program Site SL0603767271 G 8, P (TCE) 9/27/2004 Olympic Well Field Area 1681 26th St. Cleanup Program Site T10000006812 U 3, P 5/7/2015 Water Garden Phase I and II 2300 Olympic Blvd. Cleanup Program Site SLT4130F2842 U 6, P (VOCs) 12/7/1998 CSHV Pen Factory LLC –
Buildings I, III, & IV Reuse 1681 26th St. Cleanup Program Site T10000006811 S, G 3, P 5/7/2015 Bon Voyage Auto 2319 Michigan Ave. Cleanup Program Site T10000012506 U 2, P 6/14/2018 Centercal Property 1921-1933 Wilshire Blvd. Cleanup Program Site T10000017536 S 2, P (PCE) 12/2/2021 Dry Clean Xpress 2611 Lincoln Blvd. Cleanup Program Site T10000020099 U 2, U 10/8/2015 House of Billiards 1901 Wilshire Blvd. Cleanup Program Site T10000017492 S 2, P 6/19/2017 Pacifica Equities, LLC 1639 11th St. Cleanup Program Site T0603746434 S 2, D, P 10/25/2005 Wilshire Cleaners 2420 Wilshire Blvd. Cleanup Program Site T10000011947 U 9, U 6/15/2018 Source: GeoTracker (https://geotracker.waterboards.ca.gov/) based on a search conducted on July 9, 2024. Note that only the open sites are listed in the table above and shown on Figure 12-2.

Abbreviations Used for Case Type: S = Contaminated soil, groundwater not impacted; G = Aquifer used for drinking water supply impacted; O = Other groundwater (uses other than drinking water); U = Under investigation.

Abbreviations Used for Status: 1 = Case Opened; 2 = Site Assessment; 3 = Remediation; 4 = Assessment and Interim Remedial Action; 5 = Verification Monitoring; 6 = Open Inactive; 7 = Eligible for closure; 8 = Open, transferred to another agency; 9 = Informational item / review complete.

Abbreviations Used for Contaminant: D = Diesel; G = Gasoline; S = Other Solvent or Non-Petroleum Hydrocarbon; O = Waste Oil / Motor / Hydraulic / Lubricating; P = Petroleum / Fuels / Oils, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs; including TCE = Trichloroethylene, PCE = Perchloroethylene); FO = Fuels Oxygenate; U = Unspecified.

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In response to State requirements that were for the most part implemented between the late 1980s and the early 2000s, underground storage tanks in California are now required to be double-walled, made of fiberglass, and fitted with flexible connections and leak detection systems. Given these changes, although there are at least 93 permitted underground storage tanks (USTs) in the city located at approximately 43 separate addresses20F
21, the chances of future leaks, albeit possible, are
low. The leak detection systems and monitoring programs now in place are meant to identify and track if and how much product has leaked, and how far a plume has spread, if applicable.

Furthermore, all significant spills, releases, or threatened releases of hazardous materials, including leaks from underground storage tanks or spills at the pump, must be immediately reported. To report all significant releases or threatened releases of hazardous materials, first call 911 (or the local emergency response agency), and then call the Governor's Office of Emergency Services Warning Center at 1-800-852-7550. In addition, all releases that result in injuries, or workers harmfully exposed, must be immediately reported to Cal/OSHA (CA Labor Code §6409.1 (b)). For additional reporting requirements, also refer to the Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986, better known as Proposition 65, and §9030 of the California Labor Code.

Some buildings in Santa Monica not included in Table 12-2 have Tanks in Underground Areas (TIUGAs) used to store lubricants, coolants, petroleum products, or other chemicals. These TIUGAs are also administered by the CUPA, with those storing petroleum products required to meet the guidelines of the Aboveground Petroleum Storage Act (APSA). The Hotel Casa Del Mar at 1910 Ocean Way, for example, has several TIUGAs throughout the structure used to store cleaning chemicals for its cooling tower, oil for the elevator equipment system overflow, carbon dioxide, diesel for its backup generator, laundry detergent, paint and latex for maintenance and repairs, and kitchen grease.

Transporters of Hazardous Materials
As mentioned previously, in accordance with Federal and State regulations, all transporters of hazardous materials are required to have onboard Safety Data Sheets specific to the substances that they are carrying. These are documents designed to help emergency response personnel assess the situation immediately upon arrival at the scene of an accident, and take the appropriate precautionary and mitigation measures. For hazardous materials releases in Santa Monica roadways, the primary agency in charge is the California Highway Patrol, with Caltrans, and the local fire department and sheriff providing additional resources as needed.

The western end of Interstate 10 traverses the city of Santa Monica in an easterly to northeasterly direction, whereas Highway 1 (Pacific Coast Highway) extends along the coast in a northerly to northwesterly direction. According to the National Hazardous Materials Route Registry maintained by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, a division of the U.S. Department of Transportation, the sections of Interstate 10 and Highway 1 that transect the city of Santa Monica are not prescribed or permitted to carry hazardous materials. Therefore, for pickup and delivery of hazardous materials in the city, the route selected must be the shortest-distance route from the pickup location to the nearest designated route entry location, and the shortest-distance route to the delivery location from the nearest designated route exit location, respectively. Freeways in the

21 Most gas stations typically have three to four USTs, with each tank storing a different grade of fuel (premium, midgrade, and regular)-and diesel. Each fuel type is stored in a different tank, with each tank connected to each dispenser via separate, individual pipes.

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vicinity of Santa Monica that are designated by the U.S. Department of Transportation as permitted to transport hazardous materials are listed in Table 12-3. These interstates in the vicinity of Santa Monica pose a potential for spills or leaks from non-stationary sources.

Table 12-3: Routes in the Vicinity of Santa Monica
Used to Transport Hazardous Materials and Explosives
Route Comments Designation Date
(Designation Code)
Interstate 405 from Interstate
5 [North Valley] to Interstate
5 [Irvine]
Designated non-radioactive hazardous materials
(NRHM) route
Recommended for Class 1 – Explosives
Poisonous Inhalation Hazard
10/28/1992 (B)
04/16/1992 (I)
Interstate 10 from Interstate
405
[Los Angeles] to Arizona
Designated non-radioactive hazardous materials
(NRHM) route
Recommended for Class 1 – Explosives.
10/28/1992 (B)
Interstate 105 from Interstate
405 [Hawthorne] to Interstate
605 [Norwalk]
Designated non-radioactive hazardous materials
(NRHM) route
Recommended for Class 1 – Explosives.
10/28/1992 (B)
Interstate 110 from Interstate
10 [Pico Union] to State 47
[San Pedro]
Designated non-radioactive hazardous materials
(NRHM) route
Recommended for Class 1 – Explosives.
10/28/1992 (B)
Source: https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/regulations/hazardous-materials/national-hazardous-materials-routeregistry-state Route Designation Code: B = Class 1—Explosives; I = Poisonous Inhalation Hazard (PIH) As discussed in the introduction, train accidents or derailments can result, and have historically resulted in the release of hazardous substances. However, there are no railroad tracks extending across the Santa Monica area, so this hazard is not applicable to the study area.

Pipelines Through the City
One crude oil pipeline extends in a northwesterly direction across the city of Santa Monica, running beneath 23rd street then north to Cloverfield Boulevard, east along Colorado Boulevard, and to 26th Street.21F
22 This pipeline is owned and operated by Crimson Midstream, LLC., and it crosses over sections of the Santa Monica fault zone in the northeast portion of the city (Figure 12-2). If the Santa Monica fault ruptures the ground surface during an earthquake, the pipeline can be expected to rupture where it crosses or overlies the fault. Crude oil would consequently be released.

Vulnerability and Risk
Given there are 36 Significant Hazardous Materials Sites and 43 permitted underground storage tank sites in the city of Santa Monica, hazardous materials could accidentally be released, with the potential to negatively impact the environment. Facilities that use, store, generate or transport hazardous materials may change ownership or go out of business; as a result, the lists of users, generators, and transporters should be updated at least once a year. Residents, and property or business owners that are interested in obtaining current data for a particular area or site should

22 https://pvnpms.phmsa.dot.gov/PublicViewer/

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request it from the Santa Monica Fire Department or by visiting the appropriate websites referenced herein.

The city of Santa Monica is underlain by the Santa Monica fault (see Section 6). The city is also located near many onshore and offshore faults that have the potential to generate strong ground shaking in the region should they rupture in an earthquake. Therefore, all hazardous materials sites in Santa Monica could be subjected to moderate to severe seismic shaking. Their business plans should address, provide, and implement mitigation measures designed to reduce the potential for releases of hazardous materials during an earthquake. It has been shown in previous urban earthquakes that hazardous materials spills can occur even when the building does not suffer significant damage. Hazardous material containers not properly secured and fastened could easily be punctured and/or tipped over, pipes may rupture, and storage tanks may fail. Containers may also explode if subject to high temperatures, such as those generated by a fire. Lithium batteries may explode if shaken too vigorously or if they fall off as a result of ground shaking. Improperly segregated chemicals could react forming a toxic gas cloud. In a worst-case scenario, several hazardous materials releases could occur simultaneously.

One large-quantity RCRA site, one Cleanup Program site, and one permitted UST site are located in close vicinity of one of the several mapped traces of Santa Monica fault (see Figure 12-2). Surface fault ruptures near these facilities could result in structural damage and release of the chemical substances stored therein. Thus, avoidance of fault zones by facilities using, storing, or transporting hazardous materials should be considered in the future. Additionally, a crude oil pipeline crosses the Santa Monica fault zone at multiple locations in the northeast portion of the city (Figure 12-2).

The crude oil pipeline should be fitted with shutoff valves located outside of the Santa Monica fault zone to limit the amount of oil spilled should the pipeline rupture in an earthquake. Gas lines extending across the fault zone are also likely to be damaged if the Santa Monica fault ruptures the ground surface. Shaking of the ground alone as a result of an earthquake is likely to result in gas leaks around the City. For an analysis of gas leaks resulting from four different earthquake scenarios, refer to Section 6.

There is one (1) permitted underground storage tank (UST) site in Santa Monica near the 100-year flood zone along the coastline. This is an UST at the Hotel Casa Del Mar. Moreover, several buildings near the coastline have regulated above-ground storage tanks that contain fuel for backup power generators. Street flooding as a result of intense storms or inadequate storm drain capacity could result in the flooding of some of these hazardous materials facilities.

The facilities discussed above and listed in Table 12-1 are for the most part handling chemical substances that occur in a liquid or solid state at normal temperatures and pressures. A leak of any of these substances (such as gasoline, diesel and motor oil used at gas stations and vehicle repair centers, and solvents used in dry cleaners) could impact the underlying soils. While such a release and subsequent contamination would be unfortunate and would require extensive resources to cleanup, it would not pose an immediate danger to the surrounding population. Past studies of hazardous materials release scenarios as a result of an earthquake have concentrated on the two substances that are thought to pose the biggest threat to a community during an earthquake: Chlorine and anhydrous ammonia. These substances, under normal temperature and pressures, occur in a gas state, and thus if released to the atmosphere, form clouds that can spread to adjacent areas, posing a threat to the surrounding community.

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Chlorine is one of the products most often used as a disinfectant by swimming pool, drinking water and wastewater facilities, making chlorine one of the most prevalent extremely hazardous substances. Chlorine is typically found in the form of a colorless to amber-colored liquid, or as a greenish-yellow gas with a characteristic odor. The liquid solutions are generally very unstable, reacting with acids to release chlorine gas (such as bleach mixed with vinegar or toilet bowl cleaner containing hydrochloric acid). Mixing bleach with other products is the largest single source of inhalation exposure reported to poison control centers. Chlorine gas is heavier than air and therefore stays close to the ground, where it can impact individuals. Exposure to chlorine gas generally impacts the respiratory system, with coughing, shortness of breath, chest pain, and burning sensation in the throat reported as the most common symptoms. Respiratory distress can occur at even low concentrations of less than 20 parts per million (ppm). At high concentrations (> 800 ppm) chlorine gas is lethal.

Ammonia is a compound of hydrogen and nitrogen that is used extensively, either directly or indirectly, in several different types of applications, including the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and commercial cleaning products. The colorless gas has a strong pungent odor, and unlike chlorine gas, is lighter than air. Exposure to high concentrations of ammonia can lead to lung damage and death. Solutions of ammonia can be irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes, and to a lesser extent, the skin. A mixture of an ammonia solution with a chlorine-containing compound, such as bleach, can result in the formation of a highly poisonous gas.

Chlorine pellets, chlorine solutions and ammonia solutions can be found at supermarkets, hardware stores and other locations that sell pool supplies and cleaning products. Bleach and ammonia solutions can be found in almost every household and in commercial and industrial facilities, including hotels, hospitals, medical and veterinary facilities, etc. Proper storage and usage practices are required at all of these locations to reduce or eliminate the potential for a toxic release of chlorine, ammonia, or worse, a mixture of the two. Chlorine and/or ammonia may be used at the wastewater treatment plants owned by the City of Santa Monica. Chlorine is also likely to be used by water storage facilities to treat the municipal supply of drinking water. Proper operations and maintenance procedures are required at these facilities to prevent equipment and process failures that could lead to the unauthorized release of these substances at concentrations that could impact the surrounding areas. These facilities are required to maintain a comprehensive program of personnel training, security enforcement and equipment monitoring to reduce the risk of an accidental or intentional (terrorist) release.

In the Santa Monica area, spills or leaks from a non-stationary source could occur in the event of an accident involving a vehicle carrying hazardous substances. Although the sections of both Interstate 10 and Highway 1 that extend across the city are not permitted to transport hazardous materials, hazardous materials still need to be transported into and out of the city to accommodate the users of these materials within city limits (such as the gas stations, hospitals, water treatment facilities, pharmacies, etc.). Other routes in the region are permitted to transport hazardous materials, including Interstates 405, 110, 105, and 10 (east of I-405). Therefore, for pickup and delivery of hazardous materials in the city of Santa Monica, the route selected must be the shortest-distance route from the pickup location to the nearest designated route entry location, and the shortestdistance route to the delivery location from the nearest designated route exit location, respectively.

The City of Santa Monica is currently both the largest producer of groundwater and the sole producer of drinking water within the Santa Monica Subbasin. Historically, Santa Monica’s groundwater

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supply has been negatively impacted by the gasoline additives of Methyl tert-Butyl Ether (MTBE) and tert-Butyl Alcohol (TBA), which were detected in several of the Charnock and Olympic groundwater wells during the late 1990s to early 2000s. These fuel additives found their way into the groundwater via Leaking Underground Storage Tanks (LUSTs) from various gasoline stations within the Charnock Subbasin (City of Santa Monica Annual Water Quality Report, 2023). After the contaminants were first detected in 1996, production from the local groundwater wells immediately ceased and the City of Santa Monica was forced to import most of its drinking water to meet water resource demands.

The City now uses virgin Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) filtration to treat the groundwater from these wells and reduce MTBE and TBA concentrations to levels well below the Maximum Contaminant Level of 5 parts per billion (ppb).

More recently, in 2019, City staff proactively sampling the City’s drinking water sources for PFAS detected perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in the Olympic Well Oil Field (Draft 2023 Annual Water Shortage Assessment Report). These substances are readily absorbed but not readily eliminated from the human body, and according to the State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB), long-term exposure can cause harmful health effects to a developing fetus or infant, suppress the immune system, disrupt thyroid function, increase liver weight, and lead to cancer. The City will use ultraviolet-advanced oxidation processes and a two-stage GAC filtration at the Arcadia Treatment Plant to treat this water, and will perform continuous monitoring for these substances.

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS MITIGATION ACTIVITIES
In accordance with State and Federal laws, all businesses that handle hazardous materials in the city of Santa Monica should continue to prepare and file business plans with the City’s CUPA. The business plans for all hazardous materials businesses in or near the coastal flooding zone should address the hazards of flooding, and all handlers of hazardous materials near the Santa Monica fault zone should provide for mitigation measures to be implemented to reduce the potential for hazardous materials to leak or spill during a natural disaster. All Santa Monica Fire Department (SMFD) engine companies are trained to respond to hazardous materials incidents, but Fire Station 5, located near the Santa Monica airport, is specifically equipped to respond to hazardous materials spills and emergencies. The locations of the SMFD stations are shown on Figure 12-2, with Station 5 highlighted.

Given that several of the existing hazardous materials sites in Santa Monica are located near schools and other critical facilities, that transportation incidents could also occur along any of the truck routes in the city, and that gas or sewage leaks can occur anywhere in the city, it is advisable to encourage schools and other critical facilities with populations with limited mobility to develop plans that include a protocol to be followed in the event of a leak of hazardous materials that would require them to evacuate or shelter-in-place for a long duration. If possible, future significant hazardous materials sites should be sited in areas far away from facilities with evacuation concerns.

Pipeline operators are responsible for the continuous maintenance and monitoring of their pipelines, including the repair, when necessary, of corroded sections of pipe. All excavations or drilling operations near pipelines (including sewer, water, gas, and crude oil) and other utilities (cable, electric and communication lines, etc.) should be conducted only after proper clearance by the appropriate utility agencies or companies. California law requires that all excavation locations be first cleared – this is done by the Underground Service Alert of California or DigAlert (http://www.digalert.com or www.call811.com). Their telephone number is 8-1-1. Calls need to be

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made at least two (2) working days before digging, and the proposed excavation area needs to be delineated or marked.

Ideally, with the development of new, “greener” products and the increasing recognition that sensitive individuals can react to chemicals used in many products, households have and will continue to opt for non-hazardous products for day-to-day cleaning. However, many households have over the years stored a variety of materials that cannot and should not be disposed of in the regular trash. These products and materials include motor oils and filters, fuels, fertilizers, paints, solvents, fluorescent tubes, batteries, electronic waste (e-waste), paints, art supplies, pool and photo chemicals, household cleaning chemicals, and sharps. Good, usable leftovers of these products can be donated to willing recipients, such as family members, neighbors and community organizations like churches. But others will want to deliver these substances to an appropriate collection center.

The City of Santa Monica has adopted a Residential Household Hazardous Waste Door to Door Collections Program in accordance with the California Integrated Solid Waste Management Act of 1989. This program is contracted with CleanEarth, Inc., and only open to residents of Santa Monica.

Residents can schedule a pickup via the link above. After a pickup request form is submitted, CleanEarth, Inc. personnel will visit your home and safely and compliantly remove residential household hazardous waste that should not be placed in your typical trash or recycling bin. A few items are not accepted through this program. These include explosives or explosive waste, ammunition, biological or biohazard waste, medical waste, and radioactive waste. Additionally, the maximum disposal limit for the Residential Household Hazardous Waste Door to Door Collections Program is 125 pounds per pickup. Several businesses in and near the city of Santa Monica, such as The Home Depot, UPS Mailing Centers, Office Depot and similar stores, may also receive and recycle certain kinds of materials such as used batteries, spent light bulbs, and old electronics.

Residents are encouraged to call these businesses directly to obtain additional information regarding their hours of operation, and the types of waste that they receive. Finally, unwanted or expired prescription drugs can now be safely disposed of 24 hours a day, seven days a week, at select prescription drug drop-boxes.

The City also operates the Conditionally Exempt Small Quantity Generator (CESQG) Program to provide small quantity generators (i.e. businesses) operating within Santa Monica with a legal and affordable solution to hazardous and/or universal waste disposal. Small businesses that meet these qualifications can drop off their hazardous waste materials on the second Wednesday of each month between the hours of 8:00 AM and 2:00 PM at the City Yard Facility located at 2500 Michigan Ave, Santa Monica, CA 90404. These programs are designed to reduce the amount of waste taken to the landfill. However, if needed, the closest active landfill facility is Burbank Landfill Site No. 3, located at 1600 Lockheed View Drive, in Burbank, CA 91504. This landfill accepts only non-hazardous solid waste, and they can be reached at (818) 238-3915.

A more convenient way to dispose of non-hazardous waste is to use a transfer station. These are facilities that serve as local collection points prior to the final disposal site. Southern California Disposal and Recycling Company, Inc. is a transfer station located in the city of Santa Monica (1908 Frank Street) that can be utilized by local residents and businesses for a fee. For additional contact information refer to the Local Resources at the bottom of this section.

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HAZARDOUS MATERIALS MANAGEMENT RESOURCE DIRECTORY
City Resources
City of Santa Monica Certified Unified Program Agency (CUPA) Division of the City’s Fire Department
(310) 458-4971
Email: [email protected]
City of Santa Monica Water Resources Division
1685 Main Street
Santa Monica, CA 90406-2200
(310) 424-2672
https://www.santamonica.gov/topic-explainers/your-guide-to-water City of Santa Monica Office of Sustainability and the Environment (310) 458-2213
https://www.santamonica.gov/departments/public-works/office-of-sustainability-and-theenvironment Santa Monica Basin Groundwater Sustainability Agency (SMBGSA (310) 351-9465
https://www.santamonica.gov/gsp
Local Resources
Underground Service Alert of Southern California (DigAlert) Telephone: 811
https://www.digalert.com
www.call811.com
South Coast Air Quality Management District (South Coast AQMD) 21865 Copley Drive, Diamond Bar, CA 91765
(909) 396-2000
http://www.aqmd.gov/
Metropolitan Water District (MWD) of Southern California 700 North Alameda Street, Los Angeles, CA 90012-2944
P.O. Box 54153, Los Angeles, CA 90054-0153
(213) 217-6000
https://www.mwdh2o.com
CleanEarth, Inc. (Santa Monica Residential Household Hazardous Waste Program) (877) 445-2371
https://www.cleanearthinc.com/santa-monica-ca-residential-household-hazardous-waste-program

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Southern California Disposal and Recycling Company, Inc. 1908 Frank Street, Santa Monica, CA 90404
(310) 828-6444
https://www.scdisposal.com/htmls/transfer.html
County Resources
Los Angeles County Certified Unified Program Agency (CUPA) 200 North Main Street, Suite 1780, Los Angeles, CA 90012 (213) 978-3680
https://lafd.org/fire-prevention/cupa
County of Los Angeles Public Health (Current Landfill Facilities in Los Angeles County) 5050 Commerce Drive, Baldwin Park, CA 91706
(888) 700-9995
http://www.publichealth.lacounty.gov/eh/business/landfill-facilities.htm State Resources
California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services – Spill Release Reporting Any significant release or threatened release of a hazardous material needs to be reported immediately to the CalOES State Warning Center.
(800) 852-7550 or 911
https://www.caloes.ca.gov/office-of-the-director/operations/response-operations/firerescue/hazardous-materials/spill-release-reporting/ California Regional Water Quality Control Board – Los Angeles Region 320 West 4th Street, Suite 400, Los Angeles, CA 90013
(213) 576-6600
https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/losangeles/
https://geotracker.waterboards.ca.gov
California Water Resources Control Board - Division of Drinking Water:
(818) 551-2004
https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/drinking_water/programs/ California Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC) 1001 “I” Street (PO Box 806)
Sacramento, CA 95812
(916) 551-1313
https://www.dtsc.ca.gov
California Department of Transportation (Cal Trans) – District 7 100 South Main Street, Los Angeles, CA 90012
(213) 897-1200
https://cleancalifornia.dot.ca.gov/

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California Department of Conservation, Geologic Energy Management Division (CalGEM) (916) 445-9686
https://www.conservation.ca.gov/calgem
Federal Resources
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – Region 9
75 Hawthorne Street, San Francisco, CA 947-8000
(415) 947-8000; (866) EPA-WEST
https://www.epa.gov
https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/forms/contact-epa
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) – Region IX
1111 Broadway, Suite 1200, Oakland, CA 94607-4052
510-627-7100
https://www.fema.gov
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration 1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE, Washington, DC 20590
(800) 832-5660
https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/
https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/regulations/hazardous-materials/national-hazardous-materials-routeregistry

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SECTION 13: AIRPORT HAZARDS

WHAT AIRPORT ACTIVITIES COULD POSE A HAZARD TO THE CITY OF SANTA MONICA?
The term “airport hazard” typically refers to a structure, object (such as a tree or hill), or land use which obstructs the air space required for aircraft to land or take off at an airport or is otherwise hazardous to such landing or taking off activities. In this document, the term “airport hazards” also refers to activities associated with the operation of an airport that could pose a negative impact on the health and safety of persons in the immediate vicinity, or could impact properties, facilities, infrastructure and/or the environment. Specifically, commercial, industrial, residential, and recreational properties near Santa Monica Airport (SMO), and the people occupying such structures, could be exposed to aviation-related accidents and other airport-related hazards. Airport safety thus must address not only on-airport issues but potential safety hazards that can affect off-airport uses and populations. Subjects discussed in this section include ground and airspace safety related to airport operations, aviation noise, and the potential presence of hazardous materials related to past and present operations at SMO.

To address these subjects, this document first provides an historical overview of SMO, and describes its physical setting, followed by a summary of past aviation accidents in southern California and in and near Santa Monica. The report then describes the conditions and legal obligations of the airport and the aviation community, including requirements imposed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and local emergency response services. Finally, the report evaluates the impact of potential events that might take place within Santa Monica city limits. The analysis relies on a review of past accidents to discuss the likelihood of an aviation accident occurring in the future, the areas or functions that can be expected to be most seriously impacted if an aviation or airport-related accident occurs, and the actions that will most effectively protect life and safety, property, the environment, and the interests of the City if such event occurs.

BACKGROUND
Airport Setting
SMO is located along the southeastern edge of Santa Monica (Figure 13-1), with the easternmost portion located within City of Los Angeles limits. The airport has a single runway, oriented westsouthwest, with most takeoffs occurring westward toward the Pacific Ocean during prevailing wind patterns. Prior to 2017, SMO provided a lighted runway approximately 5,000 feet long and 150 feet wide, but in 2017, the runway was shortened to 3,500 feet.

Development of the SMO airfield altered the local topography to optimize the slope of the runway.

To do this, the northwest portion of the property was cut into relative to the adjoining slope, and the southwest portion of the property was raised. As a result, the SMO site slopes gently from east to west, with a high point of approximately 180 feet (55 meters) above sea level (asl) at the northeast corner of the site and a low point of approximately 99 feet (30 meters) asl at the southwest corner of the airport property (Figure 13-1). The airport site is somewhat elevated above terrain to the south, is steeper at the southwest corner and is lower than adjoining land north of Marine Street. The resulting changes in terrain between the airport and adjoining residences serve to somewhat isolate the airport property.

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Figure 13-1: Regional Setting of the Santa Monica Airport

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Runoff associated with precipitation and irrigation on airport property flows to the southwest and is captured in intercept channels and discharged into its heavily vegetated margins on the west. There are also catch basins located throughout the airport property. Some of these flow to a 36-inchdiameter stormwater main along Airport Avenue, which then flows west through a series of stormwater mains and ultimately drains to the Penmar Recreation Center Park.

The SMO site is comprised of a large flat area with a relatively high percentage of paved surfaces.

This in effect makes the SMO site a “discontinuity” within the surrounding urban landscape. The environmental setting at the Santa Monica airport property is expected to change and evolve over the next few years, as SMO is scheduled to close at midnight on December 31, 2028. The City is currently undergoing a public planning process to determine the future of the Santa Monica Airport land in advance of closure. Currently, however, the airport continues to operate with a mix of aviation and non-aviation uses, as described further below, with this report addressing potential hazards related to the past and current operations at SMO.

Santa Monica Airport History
Santa Monica has been served by a local municipal airport since at least 1922, when a tract of farmland at the eastern boundary with the city of Los Angeles was first used as a provisional airfield.0F 1 In 1924, Santa Monica voters approved a park bond ballot measure to purchase the farmland, and the City purchased 158 acres adjacent to Ocean Park Boulevard for use as the Santa Monica Airport (SMO) and for recreation that included an archery range, golf course, tennis courts, and other recreation opportunities. Previously known as Clover Field, the general aviation1F 2 airport played an
integral role in the development of Santa Monica from a small beach town of only a few thousand residents to the sophisticated residential community, urban destination and regional job center that the city is today. SMO is the oldest operating airfield in Los Angeles County, and one of the oldest airports in the United States (U.S.). In the late 1960s, SMO was arguably one of the busiest, if not the busiest general aviation airport in the world, with more than 356,000 airport operations (takeoffs and landings) in a year.2F
3 These statistics have changed since, the airport in Van Nuys, California (KVNY) as of 2020, ranked the busiest general aviation airport in the U.S., and one of the busiest in the world.3F
4 The City has continuously owned and operated SMO since its inception, except during World War II (WWII), when it was leased to and operated by the Federal government, with the airport housing the Army’s 40th Division Aviation and 115th Observation Squadron. Before, during, and for a brief period after the war, SMO was also home to the Douglas Aircraft Company (Douglas); the Santa Monica-based company designed and built aircraft for the U.S. military forces, and starting in the 1930s, commercial transport aircraft. After WWII, Douglas reduced its workforce and later left the airport for a larger facility in Long Beach.

1 According to https://www.smgov.net/Departments/Airport/History.aspx, pilots flying World War I planes were using the site as an informal landing strip since around 1917. 2 A general aviation airport is a public-use airport that supports a variety of services, including air cargo, emergency medical transportation, law enforcement, firefighting operations, and non-commercial aviation activities like flight instruction, personal recreational flying, business travel, etc. General aviation airports have no scheduled commercial services, or less than 2,500-passenger boardings annually. General aviation airports are the most common type of airport in California. 3
https://www.smgov.net/Departments/Airport/History.aspx, accessed May 19, 2025. 4 https://generalaviationnews.com/2020/02/03/top-10-busiest-general-aviation-airports/ and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Nuys_Airport, accessed June 12, 2025.

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Historical uses at SMO4F
5 include a golf course on the south airport area, unpaved dirt roads for access to nearby aircraft support facilities, aircraft parking, aircraft tie-downs, and developed structures and storage units, including storage for the Barker Hangar that was constructed in 1954 (Parsons, 2016).

By the late 1950s, the structures on the west paved surface area and the adjacent Barker Hangar were present mostly as they are today. The existing aircraft-related commercial uses at 3025 Airport Avenue (now occupied by Proteus Air Service) were in place since at least 1967. Also since the 1960s, the east paved surface area was used for aircraft tie-down purposes; this land use continued until 2016, when the airplane tie-downs were removed and land in the vicinity was developed. The Airport Administration Building in the northern portion of the airport was replaced or improved in the 1980s (Parsons, 2016).

Today, SMO property is currently approximately 192 acres (17 acres of which are in the City of Los Angeles but all 192 acres are owned by the City of Santa Monica), with this acreage used for both aviation and non-aviation activities, including offices and educational facilities (see below). The following briefly describes the City’s General Plan land use designations at and surrounding the airport (Figure 13-2), and the current mix of land uses in this area. This in turn provides context as to potential airport safety hazards.

The lands encompassed in the SMO boundary are designated “Institutional/Public Lands” in the Santa Monica General Plan’s Land Use and Circulation Element (LUCE), which allows for the airport and associated uses. Lands to the immediate north of the airport in Santa Monica are designated “Single Family Housing,” “Office Campus,” and “Parks and Open Space.” Immediately north of the airport is the City’s Clover Park, the fully developed Airport Business Park and the Santa Monica Business Park office and commercial development, all of which extend north to Ocean Park Boulevard (Figure 13-2). Lands immediately north of the west end of the airport include fully developed single-family neighborhoods and a City of Santa Monica Fire Station (Fire Station No. 5).

To the west and southwest, land uses include extensive single-family development, the Penmar Golf Course and the Penmar Park and Recreation Center.

Land use to the east and south is designated primarily as “Low Residential” on the City of Los Angeles General Plan land use map for the Palms – Mar Vista – Del Rey areas, with small pockets assigned to “Limited Manufacturing,” “Low Medium Residential,” “Medium Residential,” and “General Commercial.”5F
6 Specifically, east of the airport and Bundy Drive are single-family homes of the Mar Vista residential neighborhood and limited commercial development on National Boulevard. Lands to the south of the airport property are predominantly single-family homes, the Bundy Campus of Santa Monica College and the North Venice Little League Fields and Ocean View Community Gardens to the southeast (Figure 13-2). The nearest schools to SMO are the adjoining SMC Bundy Campus, Mar Vista Elementary (±0.6 mile southeast), and Walgrove Avenue Elementary (±0.6 mile southwest).
5 Most of the information in this section is derived from the Airport Park Expansion Project Final EIR prepared by Amec Foster Wheeler (2018). The EIR references a Phase I Environmental Site Assessment (ESA) prepared by Parsons in February 2016; a Phase II ESA prepared by ES Engineering Services, LLC in September 2016; a Supplemental Site Assessment Report for the West Parcel, a Supplemental Site Assessment Report for the East Parcel, both prepared by ES Engineering in July 2017; and a Screening Level Risk Assessment for the East Parcel prepared by Parsons in August 2017 (all hazardous materials investigations are included as Appendix D of the Final EIR by Amec Foster Wheeler, 2018). 6 City of Los Angeles General Plan Online Land Use Mapping; https://planning.lacity.org/odocument/7faa8bdde766-42fc-b997-1b1bd5576870, accessed on January 17, 2023 and January 16, 2025.

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Figure 13-2: Land Use Around Santa Monica Airport

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The SMO property is currently home to about 166 businesses from over forty industry sectors, including aviation businesses, the Museum of Flying, the Barker Hangar event venue, art studios, SNAP, a portion of the Santa Monica College (SMC) Bundy Campus, miscellaneous offices, surface parking lots, restaurants, and other non-airport related uses. Other airport uses include the two-story General Aviation Facility Specialty Hangar (3100 Donald Douglas Loop South), the two-story Airport Administration Building (3223 Donald Douglas Loop South), and the City’s Transient Aircraft Parking Area. The Administration Building can also function as an alternate Emergency Operations Center if needed. As mentioned above, Santa Monica’s Fire Station No. 5 at 2450 Ashland Avenue is also located on SMO property.

Airport Operations
In 2023 (the most recent data available as of the writing of this document), SMO recorded 57,110 flight operations (i.e., departures and arrivals), with propeller (single-engine piston, multi-engine piston, and turboprop) aircraft accounting for more than 92% of these.6F 7 The rest of the operations
were made by jet engines and helicopters. Of these totals, 18% of the operations were aircraft on instrument flights (IFR itinerant), 46% were VFR itinerant, and 36% were local (VFR local operations)7F
8 . Flight operations data for SMO between the years 2018 and 2023 are summarized on Table 13-1 below. Note that the number of operations in 2023 were 21% less than in 2022. The 2023 numbers are the lowest since at least 2011, and even lower than the 2020 numbers (58,228 operations), during the COVID-19 pandemic, when SMO’s control tower adopted a reduced-hours operational schedule. This is illustrated graphically on Figure 13-3. For comparison purposes, the Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), located approximately 5.5 miles to the south of SMO, reported 575,097 operations in 2023, ranking as the fourth busiest airport in North America.8F 9 Annual
operations at LAX between 2013 and 2023 ranged between a high of 707,833 in 2018 and a low of 379,364 in 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic.9F
10 7
Calendar Year 2023 Annual Operations Report, Santa Monica Municipal Airport, December 2024, available from https://www.santamonica.gov/media/Public%20Works/Airport/noise%20reports/Calendar%20Year%202023%20 Anuual%20Operations%20Report.pdf, accessed January 15, 2025. 8 Itinerant aircraft means aircraft using the airport on an irregular basis, or without regular scheduling at SMO; i.e., itinerant aircraft means aircraft not based at SMO, with the flights arriving from or departing to another airport outside of SMO’s Class D airspace. Local aircraft are based at SMO, and local operations include aircraft departing the airport area to a designated practice area, and aircraft returning from the designated practice area to the SMO airport. For SMO, “local traffic” is defined as aircraft that stayed within SMO’s Class D controlled airspace, either within 5 nautical miles of SMO or within SMO’s traffic pattern.

IFR = Instrument Flight Rules, VFR = Visual Flight Rules 9 As of 2022-2023, based on https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_busiest_airports_in_North_America#2023, accessed June 12, 2025. 10 https://www.lawa.org/-/media/lawa-web/lawa-our-lax/studies-and-reports/aviation-activity-analysis/2023-aviationactivity-analysis_final.ashx, accessed January 15, 2025.

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Table 13-1: Annual Flight Operations at SMO, 2018-202310F 11 Year 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Total Operations 72,061 77,038 58,228 67,986 72,039 57,110 Itinerant 16% 14% 12% 14% 14% 18%
VFR Itinerant 53% 49% 46% 45% 46% 46%
Local 31% 37% 42% 41% 40% 36%
By Aircraft Type
Propeller 59,557 65,732 51,632 60,334 63,035 52,814
Single- and multiengine 53,682 60,784 48,915 57,158 59,012 48,589 Turboprop 5,875 4,948 2,717 3,176 4,023 4,225
Jet 2,971 3,064 2,030 2,725 3,041 2,586
Helicopter 3,658 3,294 1,849 1,751 1,940 1,710
Currently, aircraft typically approach the airport from the east and depart toward the west.

Helicopters depart to the north from a helipad at the center of the airport. The SMO air traffic control tower is manned from 7:00 A.M. to 9:00 P.M. Although arrivals are permitted 24 hours a day, pilots are requested to avoid all operations between 11:00 P.M. and 7:00 A.M. Monday through Friday, or until 8 A.M. on weekends. Exceptions are allowed for medical or public safety flights.

SMO operations involve the routine use, storage, and transport of hazardous materials, including 100 Low Lead and Unleaded aviation gasoline (AvGAS) and jet fuel, cleaning solvents, lubricants and degreasers, and other routine materials such as commercially available cleaning products and 11 Data for Table 13-1 and Figure 13-3 extracted from
https://www.santamonica.gov/media/Public%20Works/Airport/noise%20reports/2010_Annual_Noise_Report.pdf and
https://www.santamonica.gov/media/Public%20Works/Airport/noise%20reports/Calendar%20Year%202023%20 Anuual%20Operations%20Report.pdf, both accessed January 15, 2025. -
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
Figure 13-3: Annual Operations by Year at SMO, 2001-2023

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herbicides. Thus, beyond the most dramatic of airport operational hazards—aircraft accidents— there are a variety of other potentially significant hazards that can adversely affect surrounding lands and land use. These include a typically noisy environment with occasionally high intensity noise levels, engine blasts that may result in vibrations, odors, light pollution, disruption of roadway circulation networks and others. Similarly, “development around an airport, particularly in the approach and departure paths, can create obstructions in the airspace traversed by an approaching or departing aircraft. Additionally, certain land uses have the potential to attract wildlife or to create hazards to aircraft such as a distracting glint or glare, smoke, steam, or invisible heat plumes.11F 12”
Several of these considerations of land use compatibility are discussed further in this document.

HISTORICALLY AND LOCALLY SIGNIFICANT SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

AVIATION ACCIDENTS
SMO and LAX generate a large fraction of the aviation traffic above the city of Santa Monica, although significant traffic over the city is also the result of aircraft transitioning north and south over LAX via a number of VFR corridors. Moreover, and especially during the summer, there is also noticeable transient traffic from helicopter and aircraft operations. As the data in the following tables show, however, a large percentage of aviation accidents and incidents12F 13 that have been reported in
Santa Monica, or in Santa Monica Bay, are associated with aircraft that were taking off or landing at either LAX or SMO. As described in the previous section, hundreds of thousands of aircraft operations are conducted annually from these two airports combined, with LAX being responsible for about 90% of the total. It is important to keep these numbers in mind when describing the air traffic accidents and incidents that have historically occurred in the area. Essentially, as the descriptions and tables in this section show, the number of aircraft incidents and accidents in the southern California region, and especially related to air traffic associated with LAX and SMO amount to a very small percentage of the total number of airport operations, on the order of less than one incident out of more than one million (it is impossible to calculate an exact figure because the number of operations vary from year to year and there are several years where no accidents or incidents occurred).

An inherent difficulty in managing safe airport operations is the unpredictability or uncertainty of future events that may occur with occasional aircraft operations. Since aircraft accidents happen infrequently and the time, place, and consequences of their occurrence cannot be predicted, conceptualizing operational risks is a difficult, but essential, planning activity. As cited above, accidents at or associated with flight operations originating at SMO is one factor for analyzing future aviation risk. Therefore, assessing the type, frequency and consequences of past accidents informs future planning at the airport while it continues to operate as such. This is discussed further below.

12 California Airport Land Use Planning Handbook, prepared by Caltrans Division of Aeronautics. October 2011, available from https://dot.ca.gov/-/media/dotmedia/programs/aeronautics/documents/californiaairportlanduseplanninghandbook-a11y.pdf. 13 An aviation accident is a serious event that results in death, serious injury, or significant damage to the aircraft.

An aviation incident is an event that affects or could affect safety but does not meet the criteria of an accident.

This means that the event did not involve serious injuries or fatalities, and the aircraft did not sustain major damage, remaining airworthy or not requiring major structural work. All accidents and certain incidents must be reported to the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB).

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Table 13-2 summarizes significant commercial aviation accidents and incidents that have occurred in southern California since at least 1936. These include major aviation accidents that resulted in significant or complete destruction of the aircraft and loss of life anywhere within southern California airspace, and minor to moderate accidents and incidents that involved aircraft flying into or out of LAX or SMO. Accidents involving small aircraft that did not occur in Los Angeles airspace, such as the small aircraft crash in Fullerton on January 2, 2025, or the two aviation accidents that occurred in San Diego in May and June 2025, respectively, are not included here.

Note that most (but not all) of the incidents summarized here, especially those that have occurred in the past 25 years, while no doubt frightening to those involved, resulted in no injuries or casualties. Incidents that occurred on the ground are not included unless the situation could have been much worse, with the potential to impact tens to hundreds of people. It is noteworthy to point out that several of the earlier incidents prompted changes in operations and rules that have since helped to make air travel safer. Where appropriate, these changes are briefly discussed following the description of the accident or incident. Thus, today, there are a variety of systems and procedures in place aimed at mitigating aviation hazards, including air traffic control systems and operational safety requirements for pilots.

Table 13-2: Significant Historical Aviation Accidents and Incidents in Southern California13F 14 Date Description Casualties
December
27, 1936
Plane crashed near Newhall. Deemed pilot error for
attempting to fly through Newhall Pass at a lower elevation than surrounding mountains.

All 9 passengers and 3 crew members
died.

January 10,
1945
During missed approach of airport, plane crashed into the Verdugo Hills.

All 21 passengers and 3 crew
members died.

January 31,
1957
Douglas DC-7B flying out of SMO was involved in a mid-air collision with U.S. Air Force Northrup F-89 Scorpion. Aircraft crashed into school yard of Pacoima Jr. High School and the grounds of Pacoima Congregational Church. Deemed pilot
error, with both crews having failed to exercise “see and avoid” procedures. As a result, restrictions were imposed on all military and civilian aircraft, requiring all test flights be made over water or approved sparsely populated areas.

All 4 crew members of DC-7B died.

One crew member of the Scorpion
bailed and survived, although
injured. Pilot died.
2 students at Jr. High were killed at
the scene and 1 died at hospital two
days later. Approximately 75 students
were injured, some critically.

May 22,
1968
Passenger helicopter crashed in Paramount due to mechanical failure of blade rotor system. Wreckage fell on dairy farm.

All 20 passengers and 3 crew
members died.

August 14,
1968
Passenger helicopter crashed in a park in Compton, next to a residential area. Cause attributed to fatigue failure with the main rotor blade separating mid-flight. In response, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) required an immediate inspection of all Sikorsky S-61 helicopter spindle units, the adoption of more precise and frequent inspection of said units, and a study to establish the retirement life for that part.

All 18 passengers and 3 crew
members died.

January 13,
1969
Flight from Denmark to Los Angeles crashed into Santa
Monica Bay, approximately 6 nautical miles west of LAX; Out of the 45 total onboard, 15 died
and 17 were injured.

14 The accidents and incidents included here were compiled from a variety of sources, including the National Transportation Safety Board data set of aviation accidents from 1962 through the present available from https://www.ntsb.gov/safety/data/Pages/Data_Stats.aspx; cases in the Aviation Safety Network database for incidents near LAX, available from https://aviation-safety.net/database/airport/airport.php?id=LAX, and various Wikipedia entries in the category “Airliner accidents and incidents in California,” available from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Airliner_accidents_and_incidents_in_California; all entries accessed in January-July 2025.

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Date Description Casualties
deemed pilot error.

January 18,
1969
Flight from LAX to Milwaukee, Wisconsin crashed into Santa Monica Bay due to mechanical failure of engines and crew becoming disorientated when all lights onboard went dark due to power loss.

All 38 onboard died.

June 6, 1971 Flight to Salt Lake City, Utah had departed LAX while Phantom II F-4 of the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) was approaching El Toro USMC air station near Irvine. Aircrafts collided in midair over San Gabriel Mountains near Duarte. Crash prompted US Air Forces to reduce number of military aircraft operating under visual flight rules and require military aircraft to contact civilian air traffic controllers.

All 49 onboard the passenger aircraft
died. F-4 pilot died; F-4 radar
intercept officer ejected and survived.

April 12,
1977
Flight from San Diego to Atlanta with stopover at LAX. Aircraft suffered mechanical malfunction that caused aircraft to pitch aggressively. Pitching force was counteracted by reducing thrust to wing engines and moving passengers forward in the cabin as much as possible. Pilots were able to land safely at LAX.

All 52 onboard survived with no
injuries.

September
25, 1978
Flight from Sacramento to San Diego collided mid-air with a private Cessna over North Park, a San Diego residential area.

Accident was deemed the result of a series of missteps, including that crew lost sight of the Cessna (did not “keep visual separation”), errors by air traffic control, Cessna pilots did not maintain their assigned heading and did not tell air traffic control of their change in course. As a result of this accident, the FAA implemented a Class B Airspace to provide for the separation of all aircraft operating in the area; all aircraft are now required to operate under “positive radar control.” As a result of this and other similar collisions, including the one on 1986 (below), all commercial passenger aircraft and almost all commercial cargo planes are now required to have a Traffic Collision Alert and Avoidance System (TCAS) that provides visual and audible alerts to pilots if another aircraft is approaching. Small single-engine planes like the Cessna are not required to have a TCAS.

All 135 onboard Flight 182 and 2
onboard the Cessna died. In addition,
7 people on the ground died, for a
total of 144 deaths. Deadliest aviation
disaster to date in California.

August 31,
1986
Flight from Mexico City to LAX was clipped on the tail by a small airplane flying from Torrance to Big Bear Lake. The damaged passenger plane crashed into the backyard of a
house in the Los Angeles suburb of Cerritos; the Piper crashed into empty schoolyard at Cerritos Elementary School.

Accident deemed to be pilot error on the part of the Piper, who climbed into Los Angeles Terminal Control Area airspace without clearance, and on Air Traffic Control, who did not notice this incursion as they were distracted by another unauthorized private flight entering controlled airspace at about the same time. Neither pilot saw the other aircraft although both were in visual range. As a result, FAA required all commercial jets in U.S. airspace to be equipped with a TCAS, and all light aircraft operating in dense airspaces to be equipped with Mode C transponders that report altitude.

All 58 passengers and 6 crew
members of the DC-9 died.

The pilot and 2 passengers in the
Piper died.
15 people on the ground died and 8
were injured.

August 11,
1987
Airplanes nearly collided approximately 2.5 miles east of the Santa Monica Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range
Station (VOR). Co-pilot of passenger craft saw other aircraft and took evasive actions at about 7,400 feet above mean sea level. Aircraft were probably about 100 feet from each other.

No injuries to all 46 onboard.

December 7,
1987
Flight from LAX to San Francisco (SFO) was hijacked by
passenger and crashed in San Luis Obispo County, near
All 43 onboard died.

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Cayucos. Perpetrator was a disgruntled employee of airline company. Safety measures were implemented to prevent this in the future.

February 1,
1991
Airplanes collided at LAX. One plane was told to taxi into takeoff position while the other aircraft was landing on same runway. Accident deemed to have likely been caused by a series of operational procedures and issues including that LAX’s ground radar system was not working at the time, there was a blind spot from the control tower to area where the aircraft was waiting to take off, aircrafts on runways were not required to turn on all their external lights until rolling for takeoff, and flaws in the system by which local controllers passed flight progress strips among them. Crash led to National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) to recommend using
different runways for takeoffs and landings; however, this was implemented only after incident in 2004 (see below). LAX built a new control tower in more central location and
rectified operational issues in control tower, lights on planes, and ground radar system.

All 12 onboard the SkyWest aircraft
died.
23 of the 89 onboard the USAir
aircraft died, mostly due to
asphyxiation from the fire that began
after crash; 29 were injured. 66
survivors.

April 23,
1994
Flight from Santa Maria, CA to LAX encountered wake
turbulence from another airplane ahead of it while descending towards LAX, north of Santa Monica VOR. After encountering turbulence, the plane rolled to the left and then became inverted. Pilot righted the plane and continued on to land without further incidents. Radar data showed that airplanes were 4.47 miles apart, less than the 5 nautical miles required when aircraft are operating directly behind a heavy jet aircraft such as a 747.
1 passenger reported minor injuries.

January 31,
2000
Flight from Puerto Vallarta, Mexico to Seattle, Washington with stopover in San Francisco crashed into Pacific Ocean north of Anacapa Island, off the coast of Ventura. NTSB review found inadequate maintenance led to excessive wear and
failure of flight control systems, with the aircraft experiencing loss of pitch control. The pilots were attempting to divert to LAX when the stabilizer assembly suffered complete failure and plane crashed at high speed into ocean.

All 88 onboard died.

August 19,
2004
Airplane landing at LAX passed about 200 feet above another plane holding on the same runway. As a result of this incident, LAX implemented an earlier recommendation by the NTSB to designate and use separate runways for landings and takeoffs.

No injuries.

February 20,
2005
Innermost left engine of plane from LAX to London Heathrow burst into flames immediately after taking off. Pilots chose to continue on three engines rather than dumping 70 tons of fuel, and performed successful emergency landing at Manchester Airport in England.

No injuries.

September
21, 2005
Flight from Burbank to Kennedy International Airport in New York City requested to make emergency landing at LAX after nose landing gear jammed in abnormal position – nose wheel was rotated 90 degrees to the left. Landing occurred at LAX to take advantage of long runway and modern safety equipment.

Pilot flew in figure 8 pattern for >2 hours to burn fuel. Nose gear generated sparks and flames upon landing but aircraft was otherwise undamaged.

No injuries to all 140 passengers and
6 crew members.

December
19, 2005
Flight flying from LAX to Frankfurt International Airport in Germany experienced failure of four right body landing gear tires during takeoff. Debris was reported on the runway by a member of the airport operations crew. Crew dumped the fuel No injuries.

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Date Description Casualties
and returned to LAX.

October 19,
2006
Flight between LAX and Mexico City, Mexico. After entering Mexican airspace, the flight crew was alerted to a System B hydraulic failure. Crew opted to return to LAX. On their final 5-mile approach to LAX, after extending the landing gear, the System A hydraulic system issued a low-pressure alert, the pressure gage reported a reading of 0 psi and the airplane became difficult to control in the mechanical reversion mode.

The crew were able to land the plane with no incident,
however. Examination of the airplane found the first event was the result of catastrophic failure of the engine driven pump, and that the second event was due to a spoiler hydraulic line that had fractured.

No injuries.

April 12,
2007
Flight from Kennedy Airport in New York experienced
moderate turbulence while descending into LAX. Flight deck had received information about turbulence below 12,000 feet, but they experienced a jolt at about 15,500 feet. Crew had already secured the cabin but were not seated. No damage to the aircraft.

No injuries to the 2 pilots and 104
passengers onboard. Minor injuries to
5 flight attendants and serious injuries
to 1 flight attendant. All 6 received
medical attention after landing.

June 29,
2007
Departing flight from LAX to Beijing, China, experienced burst tires and wheel disintegration during takeoff, causing minor damage to the airplane. While taxiing for departure, one of the tires hit a foreign object which cut the tire with resultant loss of pressure. During takeoff roll, two other tires burst and their associated wheels fractured. After dumping fuel, the airplane returned to LAX and landed uneventfully.

No injuries to the 237 people
onboard.

August 16,
2007
Two aircraft came to within 37 feet of each other while taxiing at LAX. The near-accident was the result of the controller’s failure to coordinate with the tower local controller prior to providing taxiing instructions that allowed the first aircraft to cross an active runway while the other plane was departing.

No injuries reported to 142.

December
26, 2008
Flight between LAX and Dallas/Fort Worth overran and
impacted a tug that was positioning the airplane during pushback from the terminal. First officer advanced the left engine throttle with sustained application of high thrust, causing the airplane to impact the tug. Airplane sustained damage to the radome and forward fuselage.

None of the 129 people onboard, nor
the tug operator, was injured.

May 21,
2009
Flight from LAX to San Diego, while leaving the terminal hub, taxied into a parked and unoccupied airplane. The moving airplane experienced substantial damage to the left horizontal stabilizer, and the parked plane experienced substantial damage to the right horizontal stabilizer. The parked airplane had been improperly parked with the right wing tip and
horizontal stabilizer outside the safety lines.

No injuries to any of the 47 people
onboard.

September 8,
2009
Flight from Las Vegas, while landing at LAX, experienced a failure of the inboard axle on the right main landing gear. The captain reported that the airplane swerved during the landing rollout so he stopped the plane on the taxiway. A pilot on another aircraft reported seeing a tire depart the airplane. The right inboard wheel and brake assembly separated from the aircraft and were found on the north side of the runway.

Airplane was taxied off the runway and the passengers
deplaned using stairs and were taken to the terminal by bus.

No injuries to the 142 people
onboard.

September 4,
2010
Flight to Las Vegas, Nevada departing from LAX passed within 750 feet laterally and 200 feet vertically of a helicopter flying out of UCLA Medical Center. Investigation found that
controller handling the helicopter did not issue clear and No injuries to 129 onboard.

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timely instructions and the helicopter pilot did not react quickly to the instructions provided.

November 8,
2010
Flight between Redding, California and LAX hit a bird
approximately 18 nautical miles north of LAX at an altitude of 7,500 ft. Bird hit the leading edge of the right wing, causing a 12-inch hole in the wing. Crew never saw the bird before it hit the airplane. Crew declared an emergency and made
uneventful landing at LAX.

No injuries to 77 onboard.

January 3,
2011
Flight from LAX to Toronto, Canada experienced a tail strike during takeoff at LAX. Flight landed in Ontario uneventfully, with damage to airplane tail skid discovered then. Additional review of the airplane found substantial damage to the aft pressure bulkhead. The probable cause was deemed to be
early rotation of the airplane to an angle at which the fuselage struck the runway. The early rotation was the pilot’s response to a keystroke entry error by the first officer who manually entered takeoff data for the assigned runway.

No injuries to 165 onboard.

July 11,
2014
Flight to Atlanta, Georgia, while climbing out of LAX
experienced a fire on the left No. 1 engine. Crew declared emergency, shut down the affected engine, and returned to LAX where they made a successful overweight single-engine landing. Review of the engine found that fuel had leaked from the fuel/oil heat exchanger and arcing of the power feeder cables had ignited the fuel. The arc was the result of chaffed cables that exposed the electrical wire, which in turn
contacted a metal bracket. Airline inspected their entire fleet of Boeings 767 following this incident and corrected any power feeder cables that had been misrouted.

No injuries to 208 onboard.

March 6,
2017
A plane taxiing for takeoff at LAX experienced an abrupt stop with the parking brake set. The lead flight attendant, who was performing safety checks, was seriously injured. Plane
returned to gate. Maintenance personnel examined the
airplane and found that the circuit breaker for the parking brake electrical control valve had popped, causing the
airplane to stop suddenly.
1 person injured out of 121 onboard.

September
12, 2017
Passenger airplane sustained minor damage when its righthand winglet scraped the stabilizer of another plane waiting to be towed to a gate. The tail of the second aircraft protruded beyond the while lines and the other crew misjudged the amount of clearance.

No injuries to any of the occupants in
both aircrafts.

August 13,
2018
Flight from Kahului, Hawaii to LAX experienced a tail strike during landing. The crew reported receiving a ground
proximity warning system (GPWS) fail message and electronic automatic altitude callouts were not provided by the airplane system. Aircraft touched down firmly, bounced, and the pitch altitude increased, causing the tail section to contact the runway. Failure of the radio altimeter was deemed to be the result of flying over calm/flat water.

No injuries to the 197 onboard.

January 14,
2020
Flight from LAX to Shanghai Pudong International Airport reported engine problems shortly after takeoff and requested emergency landing. Prior to landing, pilots dumped fuel over a 5-mile area in Los Angeles including 5 elementary schools and 1 high school. Most affected was Park Avenue Elementary School in Cudahy and schools in South Gate. Pilots did not follow procedures to dump fuel over unpopulated areas, open ocean, or at higher altitudes, prompting an investigation by the FAA.

Lung and skin irritation to at least 56
people in the ground including
several school children doused with
jet fuel.

Aircraft landed safely; no injuries to
those onboard.

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Date Description Casualties
January 26,
2020
Helicopter flying from Santa Ana to Camarillo crashed in Calabasas. Accident deemed to be pilot error - when
helicopter entered area with low cloud cover, the pilot lost sense of orientation and lost control.

All 9 onboard died.

February 3,
2020
Domestic cargo flight on its way from LAX to Honolulu,
Hawaii collided with a garbage bin during its takeoff roll. The garbage dumpster was blown onto the runway by winds that were gusting to 28 knots. The moving dumpster impacted the airplane causing substantial damage to the aircraft. Takeoff was aborted.

No injuries to the 2 crew members
and 5 passengers.

September
22, 2022
Flight 3 on its way from LAX to Honolulu, Hawaii experienced a pitch anomaly while climbing out of LAX. Crew declared an emergency and after dumping fuel offshore, returned to LAX without further incident.

No injuries to all 290 onboard.

December 4,
2024
Flight from LAX to Brisbane International Airport, Australia reported that while en route, approximately 1828 km WSW of LAX, sparks were observed from the No. 2 engine. Crew
returned to LAX and during approach, a bang was heard and the engine stalled. Aircraft landed without further incident.

Metal was found in the tail pipe of the damaged engine.

No injuries reported.

A summary of incidents and accidents that have occurred in and near Santa Monica between 1964 and 2023 inclusive as a result of aviation operations at SMO is provided in Table 13-3 below. The list includes aircraft to or from SMO that experienced incidents at SMO, or crashed nearby, in Santa Monica, the beach, Santa Monica Bay, Venice, Los Angeles, and Malibu. Other accidents associated with aircraft that either originated or were headed to SMO but that crashed or emergency-landed elsewhere are not included here. Some incidents in the 1960s may be missing as the records from that time period are incomplete and do not mention the airports involved.

Table 13-3: Aircraft Incidents Reported for SMO between 1964 and 202414F 15 Year of
Incident
Date of
Incident
Injury Level
Totals Fatal Serious Minor Highest
Injury Level
1964
January 11
March 18
March 21
May 13
September 26
October 18
November 3
November 25
December 19
December 27
0 0 0 None
10 incidents;
1 fatality;
1 injury
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
1 0 0 Fatal
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 1 Minor
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
1965
January 24
June 27
September 9
October 3
0 0 0 None
6 incidents;
2 fatalities
0 0 0 None
2 0 0 Fatal
0 0 0 None

15 Based on data downloaded from https://www.ntsb.gov/, accessed in March-June 2025, with searches for Santa Monica, Los Angeles, Venice, and Malibu. Additional information obtained from https://friendsofsunsetpark.org/airport/safety-concerns/, also accessed in March-June 2025.

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Year of
Incident
Date of
Incident
Injury Level
Totals Fatal Serious Minor Highest
Injury Level
November 4
December 12
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
1966
January 12
January 25
March 2
March 26
April 6
April 13
May 22
August 6
August 2
October 6
October 14
November 12
November 25
0 0 0 None
13 incidents;
2 fatalities
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
2 0 0 Fatal
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
1967
February 21
April 14
July 26
October 18
0 0 0 None
4 incidents;
7 fatalities
0 0 0 None
3 0 0 Fatal
4 0 0 Fatal
1968
May 24
August 13
October 2
October 28
0 0 4 Minor
4 incidents;
1 fatality;
4 injuries
0 0 0 None
1 0 0 Fatal
0 0 0 None
1969 May 23 0 0 0 None 1 incident; 0 injuries
1970
January 2
March 6
March 17
March 18
June 24
0 0 1 Minor
5 incidents;
2 fatalities; 3 injuries
0 0 0 None
0 2 0 Serious
0 0 0 None
2 0 0 Fatal
1973 May 14
August 21
1 0 0 Fatal 2 incidents; 1 fatality;
0 0 1 Minor 1 injury
1974 August 8 1 0 00 Fatal 1 incident; 1 fatality
1975
February 2
March 12
July 1
November 16
December 22
0 0 0 None
5 incidents;
0 injuries
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
1976 June 21
October 21
0 0 0 None 2 incidents;
2 0 0 Fatal 2 fatalities
1977
June 14
August 20
September 9
December 30
0 0 0 None 4 incidents;
1 fatality;
4 injuries
0 0 2 Minor
1 0 1 Fatal
0 0 2 Minor
1978 April 16
May 13
0 0 0 None 2 incidents;
0 0 2 Minor 2 injuries
1979 August 31 0 0 1 Minor 1 incident; 1 injury
1980
February 28
March 23
May 15
August 2
August 8
0 1 0 Serious
5 incidents;
1 fatality
2 injuries
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 1 Minor
1 0 0 Fatal
1981 April 7
May 6
0 1 0 Serious 5 incidents;
0 0 0 None 1 injury

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Year of
Incident
Date of
Incident
Injury Level
Totals Fatal Serious Minor Highest
Injury Level
May 9
May 21
November 8
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
1982
January 19
April 10
July 5
August 22
September 21
November 2
0 0 0 None
6 incidents;
1 injury
0 0 0 None
0 0 1 Minor
1 0 0 Fatal
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
1987
May 17
June 18
August 11
September 22
0 2 1 Serious
4 incidents;
3 injuries
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
1988 March 27 0 0 0 None 1 incident; 0 injuries
1989
July 7
July 9
August 6
October 26
0 0 0 None
4 incidents; 4 injuries 0 1 1 Serious
0 0 0 None
0 0 2 Minor
1990
February 26
March 10
August 2
August 24
1 0 0 Fatal
4 incidents;
5 fatalities
4 0 0 Fatal
0 0 0 None
0 0 0 None
1991 February 24
October 4
0 0 0 None 2 incidents; 0 injuries 0 0 0 None
1992
January 18
March 9
September 5
2 0 0 Fatal 3 incidents;
2 fatalities
4 injuries
0 0 0 None
0 0 4 Minor
1993
April 29
July 2
November 26
December 7
0 0 0 None 4 incidents;
3 fatalities;
1 injury
0 0 1 Minor
3 0 0 Fatal
0 0 0 None
1994
March 11
April 20
April 23
November 22
1 1 0 Fatal 4 incidents;
2 fatalities
2 injuries
1 0 0 Fatal
0 0 1 Minor
0 0 0 None
1995 May 7
July 13
0 1 0 Serious 2 incidents;
0 0 0 None 1 injury
1997 February 2 0 0 2 Minor 1 incident; 2 injuries
1999
June 16
July 11
September 23
0 0 0 None 3 incidents;
3 injuries 0 0 2 Minor
0 0 1 Minor
2001 March 28
November 13
3 0 0 Fatal 2 incidents;
2 0 0 Fatal 5 fatalities
2003 June 6 5 7 0 Fatal
2004 March 16
December 4
2 0 0 Fatal 2 incidents;
0 0 0 None 2 fatalities
2006 March 13 2 0 0 Fatal 1 incident; 2 fatalities
2008 January 13
October 7
0 0 0 None 2 incidents; 1 fatality;
1 1 0 Fatal 1 injury
2009 January 28
August 2
2 0 0 Fatal 2 incidents; 1 injury;
0 1 0 Serious 2 fatalities
2010 July 1 1 0 0 Fatal 1 incident; 1 fatality
2011 August 29 0 1 2 Serious 1 incident; 3 injuries

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Year of
Incident
Date of
Incident
Injury Level
Totals Fatal Serious Minor Highest
Injury Level
2012 August 10 1 0 0 Fatal 1 incident; 1 fatality
2013 April 12
September 29
0 0 0 None 2 incidents; 4 fatalities 4 0 0 Fatal
2014 April 18
October 26
0 0 0 None 2 incidents; 0 injuries 0 0 0 None
2015 March 5 0 1 0 Serious 1 incident; 1 injury
2016 May 22 0 0 0 None 1 incident; 0 injuries
2017 March 12 0 0 0 None 1 incident; 0 injuries
2018 February 11 0 0 0 None 1 incident; 0 injuries
2019 December 27 0 0 0 None 1 incident; 0 injuries
2021 January 2
August 12
0 0 0 None 2 incidents; 0 injuries 0 0 0 None
2022 September 8
December 22
2 0 0 Fatal 2 incidents; 1 injury;
1 0 1 Fatal 3 fatalities
2023 June 5 0 0 0 None 1 incident; 0 injuries
Grand Totals 60 20 35 135 incidents
As shown on Table 13-3, between 1964 and 2024 inclusive, about 2.3 accidents and incidents per year, on average, have involved SMO aircraft, based on records from the National Transportation Safety Board, with some years having no accidents or incidents, and other years having multiple events. Note that compared to the 20th century, the number of incidents and accidents has decreased significantly in the 21st century, although the number of fatalities and injuries has not decreased much. Thus, in the 36-year period between 1964 and 1999 inclusive, a total of 108 accidents and incidents were reported for SMO, with these resulting in 34 fatalities and 41 injuries, 9 of those serious. Between the years 2000 and 2024 inclusive, there were 27 incidents and accidents involving aircraft leaving or landing at SMO, with the accidents accounting for 26 fatalities and 14 injuries, 11 of those serious. Using the data from Table 13-1 for the years between 2018 and 2023, the number of accidents and incidents that occurred in those six years relative to the total number of flight operations at SMO amounts to about 1.7 events per 100,000 operations (7 events out of 404,462 flight operations).

The record furthermore shows that the incidents and accidents generally occurred during takeoff or landing, on or just off the end of the runway centerline, although some occurred within a short radius (generally within 5 miles) of the airport. Most of the accidents and incidents reported at SMO resulted from pilot error or equipment failure. Offsite accidents include aircraft that landed or crashed in golf courses, residential areas, or over the Pacific Ocean, in the Santa Monica Bay. Based on the records reviewed, accidents over residential areas, with aircraft crashing into residential homes, are responsible for 1 fatality and 9 injuries of individuals on the ground. The most significant of these is the accident on June 6, 2003, when an airplane with four people onboard headed to Las Vegas crashed into a three-story apartment building in the Fairfax district of Los Angeles. All four on board and one person on the ground died, and seven people on the ground were injured. Note that given that only small aircraft fly to and from SMO, accidents related to SMO operations have always involved only a small group of people, akin to vehicular accidents involving passenger cars.

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REGULATORY SETTING
Under the 2017 Settlement Agreement and Consent Decree15F 16 between the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) and the City of Santa Monica, the City is obligated to operate SMO until December 31, 2028 in accordance with the terms of the Agreement and consistent with all applicable federal laws and regulations for general aviation airports. Such rules include the City’s obligation to offer no less than a three-year lease term to new and existing aeronautical service provider tenants, subject to their ability to meet the requirements of the City’s Commercial Minimum Standards for Aeronautical Service Providers. Furthermore, if space is available at SMO to accommodate their operations, and if all regulatory requirements are met, then aeronautical service providers such as flight schools and aircraft mechanics are entitled to operate at SMO up to and until the end of 2028. For the duration of the Consent Decree, the City may not unreasonably limit or prohibit aeronautical uses at SMO. Federal, state and local regulations governing the operation of airports in general, and SMO in particular, are summarized below.

Airports are the equivalent of an industrial zone where a variety of hazardous operations occur and materials are stored, managed and used in the delivery of aviation services. The type and intensity of the land uses placed in proximity to airports, and especially specific operations, can result in increased safety hazards, and in the less-catastrophic but not-less damaging effects of excessive noise and poor air quality. It is essential that potential adverse impacts and incompatibilities are given careful consideration. “Airport land use compatibility is the reconciliation of how land development and airports function together.”16F
17 The potential of airport land uses and operations to raise issues of safety and compatibility with other land uses is well understood. Federal, state and local regulations have guided and continue to guide and direct airport design and airport operations to maximize the long-term viability of airports in general, minimize the encroachment of potentially incompatible land uses, and ensure safe and complementary aviation services wherever possible. The regulatory requirements that address the three major prongs of airport compatibility—land use, operations and noise—are briefly summarized below.

Airport Land Use Compatibility Planning Requirements
In California, the development and operations of airports, including airport land use compatibility planning, is regulated in part by Sections 21670 – 21679.5 of the Public Utilities Code (PUC)17F 18, with
the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans), Division of Aeronautics, administering the PUC statutes. The PUC outlines the statutory requirements for county-based Airport Land Use Commissions (ALUCs), and the preparation of Airport Land Use Compatibility Plans (ALUCPs). An ALUCP describes the county airports, either individually or as a group, with an emphasis on operations, and provides projections for future levels of operation and associated land use

16 For more information, refer to
https://www.santamonica.gov/media/Document%20Library/Detail/Future%20of%20Santa%20Monica%20Airport %20Project/Legal%20Documents/Consent%20Decree.pdf and
https://santamonicacityca.iqm2.com/Citizens/Detail_LegiFile.aspx?Frame=&MeetingID=1088&MediaPosition=&I D=2367&CssClass= 17 California Airport Land Use Planning Handbook, prepared by Caltrans Division of Aeronautics. October 2011, available from https://dot.ca.gov/-/media/dotmedia/programs/aeronautics/documents/californiaairportlanduseplanninghandbook-a11y.pdf. 18 California Public Utilities Code (PUC), Division 9, Part 1, Chapter 4, Article 3.5, Airport Land Use Commissions, PUC Sections 21670 – 21679.5.

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constraints, including community noise.

Furthermore, the Division of Aeronautics California Airport Land Use Planning Handbook (Handbook18F
19) provides guidance for conducting airport land use compatibility planning, including the identification of essential elements that should be covered when preparing an ALUCP (PUC Sections 21674.5 and 21674.7). Essentially, the Handbook is a valuable source of information that identifies the requirements and procedures for preparing, adopting, and amending effective compatibility planning documents, and defines exemptions where applicable. This Handbook is referenced often in this report.

Airport Operations
Operational safety is primarily focused on aircraft operations, including takeoffs and landings, but also taxiing, fueling, and aircraft tie-down and storage. A variety of federal, state and local regulations address airport operational hazards by providing policies that apply to airport land use planning efforts, development near an airport, and the management of airport-related safety risks.

Some of these regulations are discussed further below.

At the federal level, the FAA is primarily responsible for ensuring the safe and efficient use of navigable airspace, and the preservation of such airspace (Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations [CFR] Part 77). As a result, this document establishes standards for determining obstructions in navigable airspace, such as the construction or alteration of structures or objects more than a given height near an airport and the airport’s landing and takeoff approaches.

The FAA has also developed a safety management system (SMS) that includes procedures, practices, and policies for the management of safety risk that is aimed at aviation products and service providers for which the FAA has regulatory authority and safety oversight responsibility (FAA Order 8000.369C19F
20). Entities covered under this order include airports, manufacturers, operators, maintenance organizations, training organizations, and air traffic service providers, among others.

The four key components are safety-centric and address policy, risk management, safety assurance and safety promotion (Figure 13-4). Each component is briefly described below.

Safety Policy: Safety policy must clearly demonstrate management’s commitment to constantly improving operational airport safety. Policy must reflect goals and objectives, define methods and processes, and the organizational structure. Safety policy also sets forth reporting and issues resolution, and accountability.

Safety Risk Management (SRM): This component determines the need for, and adequacy of, new or revised risk controls based on the assessment of acceptable risk. It establishes a formal process that describes and analyzes the system or subsystem being managed, identifies the hazards associated with that system or subsystem, assesses the risk, analyzes the risk parameters, sets forth system-appropriate procedures to control the risk, and tracks and monitors the mitigations and controls implemented to ensure that they work as intended.

19 California Airport Land Use Planning Handbook, prepared by Caltrans Division of Aeronautics. October 2011, available from https://dot.ca.gov/-/media/dotmedia/programs/aeronautics/documents/californiaairportlanduseplanninghandbook-a11y.pdf. 20 Available at https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Order/Order_8000.369C.pdf

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Safety Assurance: The safety assurance process evaluates the ongoing effectiveness of implemented risk control strategies and supports the identification of new hazards. It includes process management functions that systematically provide confidence that organizational actions and implementation strategies meet or exceed safety requirements. The safety assurance process ensures compliance with the safety management plan and FAA orders, standards, policies, and directives. This process also provides insight and analysis regarding methods/opportunities for improving safety and minimizing risk.

Safety Promotion: Safety must be a culture and be integral to operations management. It includes staff training, communication, and other actions to create a positive safety culture within all levels of the organization. Associated training includes safety promotion activities within the system framework including staff training, advocating/strengthening a positive safety culture, developing system and safety communications and situational awareness. It also involves matching competency requirements to system requirements, disseminating safety lessons learned, and reinforcing the commitment that everyone has a role in promoting safety.

Figure 13-4: The Four Safety Management System (SMS) Components Source: FAA Order 8000.369
Other federal regulations managed by the FAA that pertain to municipal airports such as SMO are contained in Title 14 Part 152 of the CFR (14 CFR Part 152). These regulations refer to the administration of the Airport Improvement Program (AIP). The AIP provides federal grants for airport infrastructure projects, especially improvements meant to increase safety, capacity and/or security, and reduce environmental concerns. It is important to note that the City of Santa Monica does not participate in the AIP program, but has managed a robust Capital Improvement Program to improve safety, capacity and security and to reduce environmental concerns related to SMO operations.

In addition to these FAA regulations and standards, both Caltrans’ Division of Aeronautics and Los Angeles County ALUC have policies and criteria for local agencies to apply to airport land use planning efforts and development projects near an airport. Proper safety standards and airspace protection regulations are meant to minimize the number of people in the vicinity of an airport that

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are exposed to the risks associated with potential aircraft accidents, and to avoid flight hazards that interfere with aircraft navigation.20F
21 The primary ground strategy is to limit the intensity of land uses near the airport by minimizing residential and non-residential densities and activities that attract people to locations most susceptible to an off-airport aircraft accident. Certain risk-sensitive uses, such as schools21F
22 and hospitals, and above-ground storage of flammable or hazardous materials, should be avoided regardless of the number of people involved.22F 23 To that end, ALUCs adopt planning boundaries around airports that delineate those areas subject to safety hazards and noise impacts. These safety compatibility zones, or airport influence zones, include height restriction areas, the approach surface, and runway protection zones. Based on the Los Angeles County ALUCP, the approach surface is an imaginary inclined plane beginning at the end of the primary surface and extending outward to distances of up to 10 miles, depending on runway use. The approach surface governs the height of objects on or near the airport by prohibiting objects from penetrating or extending above the approach surface.

Runway protection zones (RPZs) are trapezoidal-shaped areas at ground level, just beyond each end of the runway, that provide for the unobstructed passage of landing aircraft through the airspace above. The dimensions of RPZs vary depending upon the type of landing approach that is available (visual, non-precision, precision) and the characteristics of the aircraft (size, weight, approach speed). RPZs should be kept free of all obstructions, such as structures, objects and even people. To manage this, control of the RPZ by the airport owner is essential, either by outright ownership or aviation easements to ensure compliance. Other designated areas around airport runways designed to enhance safety include Inner Safety Zones (ISZs), Inner Turning Zones (ITZs), Outer Approach/Departure Safety Zones (OSZs), Sideline Safety Zones (SSZs) and Traffic Pattern Zones (TPZs). Not all these safety zones are used at all airports.

The Airport Influence Zone (AIZ) and designated safety zones around SMO are shown on Figure 13-5. The AIZ is the designated area around the airport where airport-related activities can have an impact on nearby land uses. These concerns include not only safety but noise. The designated Runway Protection Zone (RPZ) extends 150 feet from either end of the runway,23F 24 whereas the
rectangular SMO Inner Safety Zone (ISZ) extends along the runway centerline and beyond the RPZ for 2,600± feet. For additional discussion regarding these safety zones as they pertain to land uses in and near SMO, refer to the hazard identification section below.

21 California Airport Land Use Planning Handbook, prepared by Caltrans Division of Aeronautics. October 2011, available from https://dot.ca.gov/-/media/dotmedia/programs/aeronautics/documents/californiaairportlanduseplanninghandbook-a11y.pdf. 22 California Education Code 17215 requires that new school sites within 2 miles of an airport runway need to be investigated by Caltrans. If Caltrans does not favor the placement of a school at that location, no state or local funds can be used for site acquisition or building construction at that site. Similar requirements for community college sites are established in Education Code Section 81033. 23 For additional information on federal regulations regarding airspace safety, refer to Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 77 and the California Public Utilities Code Sections 21658 and 21659. 24 As defined by the FAA, a Runway Protection Zone is an area off the runway end to enhance the protection of people and property on the ground.

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Figure 13-5: Airport Influence Zones

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Aviation Noise
Aircraft-generated noise is one of the most basic airport land use compatibility concerns and can be perceived to be the most significant of the adverse impacts associated with an airport. Aircraft noise, usually the most geographically extensive form of airport impact, is dependent on several attributes, including the aircraft type, timing, and frequency of flights. Addressing aircraft noise and its cumulative impacts requires continual collaboration and coordination among pilots, airport operators, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Division of Aeronautics, ALUCs, local governments, and other constituents.

At the federal level, the impact of aircraft noise on communities surrounding airports is addressed in the Aviation Safety and Noise Abatement Act (ASNAA) of 1979. The ASNAA directed the FAA to establish a uniform system for measuring noise, assess its impact, and identify land uses that are compatible with various levels of aircraft noise exposure. Implementation of the requirements in the ASNAA is administered by the FAA under two main programs: 1) Airport Noise Compatibility Planning (14 CFR Part 150), and 2) Airport Noise and Access Restrictions (14 CFR Part 161). Both of these programs aim to minimize the impacts of airport noise on the surrounding communities.

Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 150 was first adopted as an interim rule in February 1981, and has been revised several times, most recently in March 1988 to include freestanding heliports.

The program focuses on noise compatibility planning, establishing guidelines for airports to develop noise exposure maps and mitigation measures that emphasize land use planning. The core of 14 CFR Part 150 is the day-night average sound level (DNL) with a threshold of 65 decibels (dB)24F 25, the
level at which aircraft noise is considered to significantly impact residential areas. Figure 13-6 shows how 65 dB compares to other local average ambient noise levels.

As required by the ASNAA, Part 150 regulations apply to any “public use airport” as defined by Section 502 (17) of the Airport and Airway Improvement Act of 1982. The regulations provide a single system of measuring aircraft noise and a single system for determining the exposure of individuals to noise in the vicinity of airports. The regulations also establish a standardized airport noise compatibility planning program including:
• Voluntary development and submission to the FAA of noise exposure maps (NEMs) and noise compatibility programs (NCPs) by airport owners;
• Standard noise measurement methodologies and units;
• Identification of land uses that are normally compatible (or incompatible) with various levels of aircraft noise around airports; and
• The procedures and criteria for preparation and submission of NEMs and NCPs.

25 According to a report by Tang, R.Y., published on September 27, 2021 available from https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R46920, accessed on July 2, 2025, the FAA surveyed 10,000 people living near 20 representative airports and found that aircraft noise becomes significantly annoying at levels as low as DNL 50-55 dB. Based on these findings, the DNL 65 dB threshold may no longer be an adequate guide to federal policy, and may require the FAA to adjust the threshold to a lower level.

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Figure 13-6: Typical Noise Levels
Note: Local average ambient noise levels are defined by an average of the ambient background noise levels and peak noise events. Peak noise events may include sporadic increases in noise levels from street noise, aircraft overflights, and other temporary increase in noise.

Source: Santa Monica Airport Calendar Year 2016 Annual Operations Report; Appendix E.

Although airport operators are not required to participate in this program and thus the submission of these maps is completely voluntary, federal grants for noise abatement projects generally require an approved Part 150 NCP. ASNAA does not allow the federal government to interfere with or override local government zoning, subdivision building, and health authority.

Typically, recommended noise abatement measures fall into three categories:

1. Operational measures such as changes in runway use or changes in flight-track location;

2. Preventive measures such as compatible land use zoning or noise overlay zoning within offairport noise exposure areas; and

3. Remedial measures such as the purchasing of properties or sound insulating of residential properties exposed to significant aircraft noise.

The Airport Noise and Access Restrictions (14 CFR Part 161) were established in response to the Airport Noise and Capacity Act of 1990. Under these regulations airports may implement noiserelated restrictions on aircraft operations (such as limiting certain types of aircraft) based on a voluntary agreement with aircraft operators or by obtaining FAA approval of mandatory noise-based restrictions. Given that SMO’s 65db contours fall within the airport environment (within airport property), the City does not benefit from either Part 150 or Part 161 studies.

Airports may also implement voluntary noise abatement procedures, such as the “Fly Neighborly Program” used by SMO that is described further later in this document. These voluntary programs ask aircraft operators to adjust their flight procedures and routes to minimize noise impact on the communities or neighborhoods adjacent to the airport.

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At the state level, Section 21669 of the PUC (the State Aeronautics Act) requires Caltrans to adopt noise standards applicable to all airports operating under a state permit, as long as those standards are not prohibited by federal law. The airport noise standards promulgated by PUC Section 21669 are set forth in Section 5000 et seq. of Title 21, Division 2.5, Chapter 6 of the California Code of Regulations (CCR Title 21, Division 2.5, Chapter 6). These regulations indicate that 1) airport proprietors25F
26 have the power to impose noise ceilings and other limitations on the use of the airport, and 2) that the state has the power to act to an extent not prohibited by federal law.

In Section 5006 of CCR Title 21, Division 2.5, Chapter 56, the regulations state that:
“The level of noise acceptable to a reasonable person residing in the vicinity of an airport is established as a community noise equivalent level (CNEL) value of 65 dB for purposes of these regulations. This criterion level has been chosen for reasonable persons residing in urban residential areas where houses are of typical California construction and may have windows partially open. It has been selected with reference to speech, sleep and community reaction.”
Santa Monica implements several airport noise regulations, which are some of the strictest in the United States. Specifically, airport operations at SMO must comply with the City’s Aircraft Noise Abatement Code [Santa Monica Municipal Code (SMMC) Section 10.04.04.080(b)], which establishes a maximum noise level, nighttime departure curfew, and flight procedures designed to mitigate noise. These are described in more detail below:
• Maximum noise level: Aircraft are prohibited from exceeding a Single Event Noise Exposure Level (SENEL) of 95.0 dBA26F
27 at designated noise monitoring stations. This is discussed further below.
• Night departure curfew: Under this night departure curfew, no takeoffs or engine starts, including auxiliary power unit (APU), are permitted between 11 P.M. and 7 A.M. Monday through Friday, or until 8 A.M. on weekends and holidays. Exceptions are only allowed for bona fide medical or public safety flights.
• Operational Limitations: Training operations such as touch-and-go, stop-and-go, and low approaches are prohibited on weekends, holidays, and weekdays from one-half hour after sunset until 7 A.M. the following day. Moreover, intersection departures, formation takeoffs and landings, and simulated landings opposite the direction of take-off are prohibited. Dual wheel aircraft in excess of 60,000 pounds need prior permission from the Airport Director. • Helicopter Training: Helicopter training is prohibited.

26 An airport proprietor is the holder of an airport permit issued by the Department of Transportation pursuant to Article 3, Chapter 4, Part 1, Division 9 of the PUC. 27 dBA refers to A-weighted decibels, a measurement that factors in the human ear's varying sensitivity to different frequencies, and is thus considered a more accurate representation of perceived loudness. For example, the human ear is less sensitive to lower-frequency sounds than high audio frequencies. dB, or decibels, is a broader term representing the ratio of two signal strengths on a logarithmic scale and can refer to various measurement types with different reference points.

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Figure 13-7: Single Event Noise Exposure Level (SENEL)
Note: As an aircraft approaches a noise receptor, the sound of the aircraft begins to rise above the threshold level. The closer the aircraft gets, the louder it is until the aircraft is at its closest point directly overhead. As the aircraft passes, the noise level decreases until the sound settles below the threshold level. Such a history of a flyover is plotted in this graph. The highest noise level reached during the flyover is called the “Maximum Noise level,” or LMax. The area in the same graph within 10 dBA of the Lmax is the area from which the Single Event Noise Exposure Level (SENEL) is computed. This metric takes into account the maximum noise level and the duration of the event. The SENEL value is always higher than the Lmax value for aircraft events.

Source: Santa Monica Airport Calendar Year 2021 Annual Operations Report; Appendix B.27 F 28 The requirement that all aircraft operations at SMO need to stay at or below the 95 dBA SENEL measured at fixed noise monitor sites located 2,200 feet from either end of the runway (see Figure 13-7) is the result of an agreement between the City of Santa Monica (as the airport proprietor) and the FAA. As part of this agreement, the City is not required to report noise issues to the State, and does not provide noise reports to the Airport Commission.

The City states that “All violations of the Santa Monica Noise Code are subject to progressive sanctions of up to $10,000 dollars, including civil misdemeanor charges, and suspension or revocation of Airport privileges.”28F
29 The City’s recommended procedures are intended to help mitigate aircraft noise, but not interfere with federal aviation regulations, air traffic control (ATC) instructions, or pilot-in-command safety priorities, including weather avoidance.

28 https://www.santamonica.gov/media/Public%20Works/Airport/noise%20reports/2021%20Annual%20report.pdf, accessed July 2, 2025. 29 https://www.santamonica.gov/noise-mitigation-policy, accessed July 2, 2025. Refer to this webpage for information regarding specific aircraft that have been shown to not meet the maximum noise level of 95 dBA and are permanently excluded from operating at SMO after one violation and are subject to misdemeanor prosecution.

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Santa Monica also has a “Fly Neighborly Program” that includes the following set of voluntary procedures that help pilots avoid sensitive areas and reduce the impact of aircraft operations on the community:

Voluntary Night Arrival Curfew: Pilots are requested to avoid operations between 11 P.M. and 7 A.M. Monday through Friday, or until 8 A.M. on weekends. Although arrivals are permitted 24 hours a day, pilots are requested to comply with the airport’s voluntary night arrival curfew.

In an effort to improve compliance with the airport’s voluntary night arrival curfew, all operators that arrive during these hours are counseled by staff to comply with the arrival curfew in the future. Mandatory enforcement is disallowed by federal law.

Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Departure and Arrival Flight Paths: Aircraft departures to the west are requested to overfly the length of the Penmar Golf Course and initiate northerly turns at the shoreline, or southerly turns at Lincoln Boulevard. Departures to the east are requested to initiate crosswind turns over the 405 Freeway. SMO also requests that arriving aircraft using VFR follow certain flight patterns. Aircraft observed operating outside requested flight patterns are contacted and advised of the proper Noise Management procedures. Operators who deviate from noise management flight patterns due to weather, traffic or given a mandatory instruction from Air Traffic Control are not contacted by airport staff.

Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) Limitations: Many jet aircraft utilize APUs to provide electricity to aircraft systems prior to, or after a flight. Pilots are requested to limit APU use to thirty minutes.

Additionally, the APU is considered an engine start and shall comply with the Airport’s curfew restrictions.

Reverse Thrust Use: Due to the ground noise generated by aircraft utilizing reverse thrust upon landing, the Airport recommends minimum reverse thrust use except as necessary for safety, particularly during the nighttime hours.

IFR Engine Start Procedures: To minimize ground delays between engine-start and takeoff, fixed wing turbine aircraft shall obtain approval from Air Traffic Control prior to starting up engines.

Helicopter Arrival Procedures: The Letter of agreement between the City of Santa Monica and the FAA reflects the Airport Working Group’s recommendation to route helicopters approaching Santa Monica Airport from the north or south at or above 900 feet elevation, and approach to land perpendicular to the runway heading.

VULNERABILITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT
Ground and Airspace Safety
Although there are a variety of systems and procedures in place to mitigate aviation hazards, including air traffic control systems and operational safety requirements for pilots, accidents due to equipment failures or pilot error do happen. A substantial majority of general aviation accidents occur on or adjacent to the runway, and national data indicate that about three-fourths of all general aviation landing accidents occur during touchdown or roll-out (usually hard or long landings, ground loops, etc.). These types of accidents seldom (less than 11% of the time) result in serious or

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fatal injuries.29F
30 The remaining about one-quarter of general aviation landing accidents take place in the landing pattern, on final approach, or during a go-around attempt. A common circumstance that can result in an approach accident is pilot misjudgment of the aircraft descent rate and failure to add power soon enough to keep the aircraft in the air. Poor visibility, unexpected downdrafts, or tall objects beneath the final approach course can intensify this problem. Another prospective type of landing accident can occur if a pilot overshoots a turn from base to final and inappropriately cross controls the airplane rudder and ailerons while attempting to return to the runway alignment. The result can be a stall, spin, and uncontrolled crash.

As discussed previously and summarized on Table 13-3, incidents and accidents involving aircraft taking off or landing at SMO that have occurred since the early 1960s have been documented, with the data indicating that these accidents and incidents constitute a very small percentage of overall airport operations. Similar to the national data, most of the incidents and accidents reported for SMO-related aircraft occurred during takeoff or landing, and on the runway or within a short radius of the airport. Although not quantified separately, a fairly large percentage of the incidents at SMO appear to be related to pilot training, although most of these have been non-fatal.

Small airplane accidents, although far less catastrophic than accidents involving large commercial aircraft carrying dozens if not hundreds of passengers, can still pose a wide range of impacts to both the passengers and bystanders on the ground. Small aircraft accidents can result in injuries and fatalities. The injuries can be both physical and psychological. Property damage may include partial or complete destruction of the aircraft itself, and debris from the crash can damage buildings, vehicles, and other infrastructure. Even if the aircraft does not impact a building, spilled fuel and other substances, such as hydraulic fluid, can contaminate the ground or the water near the impact location. The spilled fuel can ignite, causing fires and explosions that could impact the victims and others near the impact site. In fact, post-crash (or post-impact) fires (PIFs) are often the cause of injuries and deaths in accidents that would have otherwise been survivable.30F 31 Economic costs
associated with aircraft accidents include financial losses related to the damaged aircraft and damaged property; losses associated with medical expenses, insurance claims, and legal fees; emergency response and environmental cleanup expenses; and in some cases, even evacuation and sheltering costs for impacted residents on the ground.

Given these concerns and findings that show that most aircraft accidents occur at or very near the airport, airport land use compatibility plans have traditionally emphasized the identification and establishment of airport safety compatibility zones, or airport influence zones (AIZs). The overall objective of these zones is to minimize risks associated with aircraft flights and other operational accidents, and reduce the impacts of aircraft-related noise (discussed further in the next section).

There are two components to this strategy: 1) safety of people and property on the ground, and 2) the protection of navigable airspace from hazardous obstructions to ensure the safety of aircraft occupants.

30 Based on national data from the NTSB for the years 1990-2000 presented in Caltrans Division of Aeronautics, 2011, California Airport Land Use Planning Handbook, Appendix E. 31 Based on https://skybrary.aero/articles/light-aircraft-post-crash-fires, accessed July 3, 2025.

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The AIZ31F
32 for SMO, as defined by the ALUC and shown on Figure 13-5, includes only the airport property proper and the off-airport runway protection zones (RPZs). The airport property includes the runway itself and the inner approach/departure zone, which refers to the area immediately adjacent to the runway from where aircraft are either taking off or landing. These are a few of the tiers or areas around airports where potentially conflicting land use patterns and intensities are described in federal and/or state and local regulations. Specifically, both the FAA and Caltrans Division of Aeronautics establish flight path and adjacent use regulations to prevent obstructions from being constructed in the airport’s navigable air space. The safety emphasis is on the runway surface and the areas immediately adjoining it. Standards are established that specify ground surface gradients for areas adjacent to runways and the acceptable location and height of aeronautical equipment placed nearby. These areas normally, but not always, are encompassed within the airport boundaries. Residences are not to be located within the inner approach/departure zone, whereas other urban uses are provisionally permitted based on use and population density. FAA authority, however, only applies to airport lands and not to surrounding lands, which are within the jurisdiction of the County ALUC and the City.

Ideally, RPZs and other inner safety zones should be entirely free of objects, with compatible land uses within RPZs typically including agricultural lands, golf courses, and other similar uses, and do not include buildings, as these zones are meant to provide a clear area for aircraft to overrun, undershoot, or veer off the runway. The California Division of Aeronautics strongly recommends that churches, schools, hospitals, office buildings, shopping centers, and other places of public assembly, as well as fuel storage facilities, be prohibited from the RPZ. Automobile parking is considered acceptable only on the outer edges of RPZs (outside the extended object free area).

However, given the highly urbanized environment, this is not the case at SMO. In fact, the airport’s surrounding land use pattern is diverse and has evolved away from the historically predominant aviation-based activities to a broad mix of other, often incompatible uses, including residential, commercial, offices, arts-based businesses, industrial research and development, and institutional (education) (see Plate 13-2), with single-family development predominating within and near the inner safety zones and the RPZs. The neighborhoods within these zones are most affected by aircraft operation hazards, and noise and air emissions. The only compatible land uses near the airport, within the airport influence zone, are the Penmar Golf Course on the west-southwest, which has been used in a few instances as a landing location by small aircraft in distress, and Clover Park. The ALUC’s ALUP does establish procedures for determining if planning efforts or substantial changes to zoning and building ordinances are consistent with the ALUP. During SMO’s remaining operational life, the FAA and the County ALUC will continue to review land use proposals within the airport area of influence, will provide guidance to the City, and may object to certain land use proposals.

Aviation Noise
Noise associated with airport operations and from aircraft overflights is one of the essential considerations of airport land use compatibility programs. The traditional, basic strategy for achieving noise compatibility within an airport’s vicinity has been to limit development of land uses that are particularly sensitive to noise. Thus, the most acceptable land uses for areas exposed to

32 The airport influence area, or zone, is defined as the geographic boundary of the ALUCP. The ALUC establishes the boundary of this zone based on the location and configuration of the airport, and the extent of the noise and safety impacts associated with that airport (Caltrans Handbook, 2011).

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significant levels of aircraft noise have been ones that involve few people (such as farmland or open spaces), or those that generate significant noise levels themselves (such as industrial uses). As discussed above, these are not the land uses common in the immediate vicinity of SMO.

Many people can be sensitive to aircraft noise even if it is barely audible above the quiet, ambient noise level, with about 25% of the population reporting annoyance when outdoor noise levels exceed about 55 dBA (see Figure 13-6). In fact, there is “abundance evidence that aircraft noise exposure in the vicinity of airports is related to annoyance, and some evidence that annoyance response has increased in recent years.”32F
33 Moreover, and significantly, outdoor aircraft noise levels exceeding 60 dBA during the day and 45 dBA at night have been associated with an increased incidence of hypertension, and exposure to outside noise levels at about 50 dBA have been associated with learning difficulties in schoolchildren.33F 34 Other studies have documented an
association between noise and high-blood pressure, stroke, heart attacks, hearing loss, sleep disruption, speech interference, cognitive performance, and depression, among other conditions.34F 35 The data reported above, which apply to areas near commercial airports and not general aviation airports like SMO, are remarkable considering that, according to the FAA, between 1975 and 2023, the number of U.S. residents exposed to significant levels of aircraft noise has fallen by about 94%, even though the number of enplanements35F
36 has increased by 365%. For the period between 2000
and 2023, these numbers are 55% reduction in noise exposure and 33% increase in enplanements. 36F 37 The decrease in noise exposure is attributed primarily to the adoption of quieter aircraft and advancements in noise reduction technology. Specifically, advances in piston-driven aircraft engines and jet engine technology have improved aircraft performance capabilities and reduced noise emitted by aircraft engines. At the same time, advances in noise reduction technologies for buildings have been developed and are applied for new construction or redevelopments in areas susceptible to transportation noise. These advances include soundproofing roofing and ceiling materials, double- or triple-pane windows, acoustic seals and sealants, soundproof doors, and building noise barriers that block or deflect noise from aircraft. Some airports have adopted voluntary programs funded primarily by the FAA that address aircraft noise issues whereby homes and/or schools within the airport-generated 65 dBA or greater noise contour are considered potentially eligible for sound insulation upgrades using a variety of the sound-proofing treatments listed above. In some cases, airports have bought the impacted homes and either converted them into non-residential uses, or replaced them with better insulated homes that are then placed back in the market.

The management and mitigation of aircraft noise on surrounding neighborhoods are dependent on the measurement and monitoring of airport-related noise. To do this, airports use noise monitoring systems that rely on a network of sensors that collect data on aircraft noise levels, flight paths, and other relevant data to identify noise sources, assess the exposure levels that airport-adjacent neighborhoods are being exposed to, and determine what noise abatement procedures, if any, are needed. SMO was one of the first airports to install a permanent noise monitoring system, and

33 Basner, M., Clark, C., Hansell, A., Hileman, J.I., Janssen, S., Shepherd, K., and Sparrow, V., 2017, Aviation noise impacts: State of the science: Noise Health, Vol. 19, No. 87, pp. 41-50, doi:10.4103/nah.NAH_104_16. 34 Kaltenbach, M., Maschke, C., and Klinke, R., 2008, Health consequences of aircraft noise: Deutsches Ärzteblatt International, Vol. 105, No. 31-31, pp. 548-556, doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2008.0548. 35 Faiyetole, A.D., Sivowaku, J.T., 2021, The effects of aircraft noise on psychosocial health: Journal of Transport and Health, Vol. 22, paper 101230; doi:10.1016/j.jth.2021.101230. 36 Defined as the number of passengers boarding flights at a particular airport. 37 https://www.airlines.org/dataset/aircraft-noise-exposure-u-s/, accessed July 7, 2025.

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currently conducts noise monitoring and noise modeling using data collected with the airport’s permanent Noise and Operations Monitoring System (NOMS). This system relies on six Noise Monitoring Terminals (NMTs) on the ground to collect the CNEL data needed for the analyses; two of these are located east of the airport, and four are located west of the airport. The data are processed using a software system developed by the FAA (FAA’s AEDT Version 3f software) that “models aircraft performance in space and time to estimate fuel consumption, emissions, noise, and air quality consequences.”37F
38 As discussed previously, SMO’s approach is to regulate and limit Single-Event Noise Exposure Levels (SENELs) to less than 95 dBA (see Figure 13-7), and Community Noise Equivalent Levels (CNELs)38F
39 to less than 65 dB, the standard issued by federal, state and local authorities. CNEL noise levels measured at the six SMO NMTs during 2023 range between 52.1 and

59.5 dB.39F
40 The data are also used to generate airport noise contours for the airport. Airport noise contours for SMO in 201940F
41 are illustrated on Figure 13-8. The figure shows that CNELs at or above the regulated 65 dB were measured only within airport property, along the runway, and did not extend into the residential areas to the east and west of SMO. Annual 2023 CNEL contours show a similar pattern as the 2019 contours, also limited to the airport property, and centered along the runway. The main differences between the 2023 and 2019 contours are that in 2023 the 70 dB contour is shorter and does not bulge to the north and south of the runway, and that in 2023 SMO-generated CNELs did not reach 75 dBs.41F
42 38 https://www.santamonica.gov/media/Public%20Works/Airport/noise%20reports/Calendar%20Year% 202023%20CNEL%20Noise%20Contours%20Report.pdf, accessed July 7, 2025. 39 Both SENEL and CNEL are noise measurement metrics, but SENEL measures the noise exposure from a single event, like an airplane flyover, and is not averaged over time, whereas CNEL is a cumulative noise level averaged over time, typically a year, that accounts for the time of day when a noise occurs, with evening and nighttime noises weighted more than daytime measurements. 40 Ibid, based on Table 3-1 in the above-referenced report. 41 Based on data from the County of Los Angeles Open Data Portal, Airport Noise Contours, updated in 2019. These are the data presented in the City’s 2025 Safety Element of the General Plan. 42 For additional information regarding the 2023 data refer to https://www.santamonica.gov/media/Public%20Works/Airport/noise%20reports/Calendar%20Year%202023%20 CNEL%20Noise%20Contours%20Report.pdf, and Figure 3-9 therein.

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Figure 13-8: Noise Contours for SMO

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To further manage and address the noise concerns of residents living near the airport, Santa Monica has instituted the Santa Monica Fly Neighborly Program42F 43, one of the elements in the City’s Airport
Noise Management Program.43F
44 This program is designed to help pilots avoid sensitive areas and reduce the impact of aircraft operations to the greatest degree practicable. The Airport Noise Management Program explains basic noise concepts and noise programs at the airport, allows residents to research flight operations, provides methods for filing noise complaints and facilitates contact with the Noise Operations Office. Complaints received as a result of SMO operations are listed in Table 13-4 for the years 2018 through 2023. In 2022 and 2023, the City received an average of 409 complaints per year, which is two to nearly 3.5 times less than in the previous four years.

Moreover, 110 less complaints were received in 2023 compared to 2022. Airport staff investigate all aircraft-related reports by neighbors and follow through as appropriate, including contacting aircraft operators that deviated from the requested flight paths, to educate them about proper noise management procedures. Airport staff also counsel aircraft operators that exceeded or nearly exceeded the maximum noise level of 95 dBA SENEL, and if those operators do not comply and log several additional violations, they are either fined, or, after multiple violations, are excluded from operating at SMO.

Table 13-4: Noise Complaints Related to SMO Operations, 2018-202344F 45 Year Total Number of Operations Total Number of Noise Complaints 2018 72,061 1,413
2019 77,038 855
2020 58,228 1,127
2021 67,986 1,454
2022 72,039 464
2023 57,110 354
Potential for Hazardous Materials Related to Historical Airport Land Uses As discussed in the Airport History section above, before the establishment of the airport in the early 1920s, the area was used as farmland. In the 1930s and 1940s, the airport and the lands immediately surrounding the airport housed the Douglas Aircraft manufacturing facility, except during WWII, when the airport was leased and operated by the Federal government. These industrial and military uses involved the use of a variety of chemicals that if released into the environment, likely resulted in the contamination of soil and/or groundwater. While some chemicals such as ammonia and acetone have a relatively short lifespan in the atmosphere and soil, other compounds are long-lived and can persist for decades in the environment.

Given the airport’s history, residual contamination is likely to be present beneath the ground surface of the airport property. Since the 1990s, the City has been conducting or requiring site investigations

43 City of Santa Monica web site “Airport Noise Management” available at https://www.santamonica.gov/topicexplainers/airport-noise-management. 44 https://www.santamonica.gov/topic-explainers/airport-noise-management 45 Based on data extracted from https://public.tableau.com/app/profile/sm.airport/viz/SMO_Noise_Dashboard_Tableau_Master_16551529204300/ AIRCRAFTOPERATIONSDASHBOARD, accessed on April 21, 2023, and https://www.santamonica.gov/media/Public%20Works/Airport/noise%20reports/Calendar%20Year%202023%20 Anuual%20Operations%20Report.pdf, accessed on July 7, 2025.

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to determine the presence and level of potential subsurface contamination at sites at and near the airport. Past assessments at nearby properties have already indicated groundwater and soil contamination. Two of these sites are described further below. • The Santa Monica Business Park property at 3000 Ocean Park Boulevard was a part of the former aircraft manufacturing facility owned and operated by Douglas Aircraft Corporation between 1928 and 1975. Other properties that used to be part of the aircraft manufacturing facility include Clover Park, the small residential neighborhood between Centinela Avenue South and Bundy Drive, and the SMO site itself.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been identified as chemicals of potential concern in the soil, soil vapor, and isolated perched groundwater zones to depths exceeding 70 feet below the ground surface under the Business Park and in the vicinity. The VOCs that have been identified consist primarily of trichloroethene (TCE), 1,1-dichloroethene (1,1-DCE), and 1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane (Freon 113). For the past nearly 25 years, at the direction of The Boeing Company, various studies have been conducted to assess the lateral and vertical extent of the contamination, with soil vapor extraction systems being used to remediate the VOC-contaminated soil vapor and groundwater. Other ongoing environmental activities at the site include indoor air monitoring and groundwater monitoring and testing, with groundwater samples collected from the monitoring wells routinely analyzed for VOCs and 1.4-dioxane.45F
46 • The Bundy Campus of Santa Monica College is contiguous to the southeast boundary of the SMO property, at 3171 Bundy Drive in Los Angeles (Figure 13-2). The campus site was previously used for aviation manufacturing uses, which resulted in the contamination of soils and groundwater with solvents and non-petroleum hydrocarbons. This site was remediated in the late 1990s and early 2000s, involving the excavation of impacted soil, removal of free product, and in-situ physical or chemical treatment of contaminated groundwater. Site closure status was issued by the Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Board in 2005.46F 47 Given these findings, additional contamination could be encountered below the airport property.

Environmental studies to assess the presence, impact, and extent of various contaminants will be necessary before the property can be considered for re-development. Based on the findings, mitigation may likely be required, depending on the type of development proposed. Some of the older buildings still on airport property may also have asbestos and/or lead paint that will require special handling if the buildings are demolished or are renovated.

Another environmental concern associated with both past and present airport operations is lead contamination of the air and soil due to the use of leaded fuel to power aircraft engines. In 2022, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published an “endangerment finding” indicating

46 Based on data from JHA Environmental, 2025, Semi-Annual Remediation Status, Report No. 55m Second Half of 2024, The Boeing Company, Former Douglas Aircraft Company Plant A, Santa Monica, California 90405, available from https://documents.geotracker.waterboards.ca.gov/esi/uploads/geo_report/9938540935/ SLT4307472.PDF, and Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board, 2025, Approval of 2025-2026 Groundwater Monitoring Plan, available from https://documents.geotracker.waterboards.ca.gov/regulators/ deliverable_documents/8820996940/0130B_Boeing%20SM_Approval%20of%202025%202026%20GW%20Mo n%20WP_03_12_2025.pdf, both accessed July 8, 2025. 47 Based on data extracted from https://geotracker.waterboards.ca.gov/profile_report.asp?global_id=T0603701426, accessed July 8, 2025.

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that emissions from aircraft operating on leaded fuel “cause or contribute to air pollution which may reasonably be anticipated to endanger public health or welfare.”47F 48 As part of this announcement,
the EPA indicated that aircraft using leaded fuel are the dominant source of lead emissions into the air, with the majority of the aircraft using leaded aviation gasoline being small, piston-engine airplanes that typically carry a small number of passengers.

In 2023, researchers published a multi-year study that involved the analysis of over 14,000 lead blood samples from children 5 years old and younger living near the Reid-Hillview Airport in Santa Clara County, California, a general aviation airport that services piston-engine aircraft using leadformulated aviation gasoline. The researchers found that blood lead levels were higher in children that lived closest to the airport, and especially in those living downwind of the airport. Blood lead levels were also found to directly correlate with the volume of piston-engine aircraft, a finding that they were able to make because reduced airport operations instituted during the Covid pandemic provided useful data that they could compare to other years with higher number of operations.48F 49 In support of the national effort to reduce lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft, Santa Monica began transitioning aircraft fueling at SMO from leaded to unleaded aviation fuels in or around 2017, and on March 28, 2022, Santa Monica successfully transitioned the SMO self-serve fuel station located at the southwest corner of the airfield to unleaded aviation gasoline (UL94, a 94- octane unleaded aviation). Since then, 100% of flight schools and almost all tenants have transitioned their compatible aircraft to the new unleaded fuel. In December 2024, SMO began to offer Swift Fuels 100R unleaded aviation49F
50 gasoline available for purchase at the airport’s self-service station, making SMO the first U.S. airport to offer that fuel for retail purchase. To encourage operators to make the switch to unleaded aviation gas, SMO offsets the added cost of the unleaded fuel over 100LL fuel, and provides other incentives.

Social Vulnerability to Airport Hazards
Like most other hazards discussed in this Plan, airport-related hazards have a disproportionate impact on health-sensitive populations including young children, seniors, people with asthma or other respiratory concerns and heart conditions, and low-income residents. However, a study that looked at sociodemographic characteristics of communities adjacent to 90 airports throughout the United States found that there is “substantial heterogeneity across airports,” with the only characteristics that were statistically significant across the cohort investigated being race/ethnicity and education levels. Specifically, the study found that communities with a higher percentage of Hispanics, and residents with only a high-school education, regardless of race/ethnicity, had a higher probability of being exposed to aircraft noise.50F 51 Review of the Social Vulnerability Index (SVI) data on a census-tract basis based on 2022 demographics collected and analyzed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the

48 https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-proposes-endangerment-finding-lead-emissions-aircraft-engines-operateleaded-fuel, a report dated October 7, 2022 that was accessed most recently on July 8, 2025. 49 Zahran, S., Keyes. C., and Lanphear, B., Leaded aviation gasoline exposure risk and child blood lead levels:

PNAS Nexus, Jan. 10 2023 edition, Vol. 2, Issue 1, doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac285. 50 https://nbaa.org/aircraft-operations/airports/smo/availability-of-100r-lead-free-avgas-caps-year-of-positivedevelopments-for-smo/, accessed July 3-8, 2025. 51 Simon, M.C., Hart, J.E., Levy, J.I., VoPham, T., Malwitz, A., Nguyen, D., Bozigar, M., Cupples, L.A., James, P., Laden, Fr., and Peters, J.L., 2022, Sociodemographic patterns of exposure to civil aircraft noise in the United States: Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 130, Issue 2, doi:10.1289/EHP9307.

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Agency for Toxic Control Substances and Disease Registry51F 52 show that most of the census tracts that
include the SMO’s influence area have a low overall SVI (Figure 13-9). This means that these census tracts do not have a high percentage of demographic and socioeconomic factors such as poverty, crowded housing, high percentage of households with residents aged 65 or older, or aged 17 and younger, with no high-school diploma or health insurance, which are factors known to adversely impact a community’s ability to respond and recover from natural or human-caused disasters. Note that the census tracts that include the airport itself (census tract 702300) and the airport’s area of influence (census tracts 7271300 to the east, in Los Angeles, and census tracts 702202 and 7273100, around the Penmar Golf Course) all have low social vulnerability indices. The Los Angeles census tract to the southeast of SMO (7271500) has a low to medium SVI. All these census tracts do house schools and child care centers, and a few house nursing homes.

Figure 13-9: Social Vulnerability of Census Tracts Near the Santa Monica Airport (showing nursing homes, schools, and child care centers)

52 https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/place-health/php/svi/ accessed July 8, 2025.

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AIRPORT HAZARDS MITIGATION ACTIVITIES
The management of airport-related hazards must address not only on-airport issues but potential safety hazards that can affect off-airport uses and populations. Because the region around SMO is extensively developed with non-airport compliant land uses, off-airport mitigation activities for this airport should emphasize the management of aircraft-related noise and vibrations, reduction or elimination of harmful air emissions from aircraft that could impact adjacent neighborhoods, and the implementation of various practices designed to reduce aircraft accidents.

As discussed in the previous sections, SMO is one of a handful of airports in the United States that has mandatory noise restrictions such as maximum noise limit and curfew hours, and also has a strict voluntary Airport Noise Management Program that strongly encourages pilots to follow designated flight paths designed to avoid sensitive areas, employ noise abatement departure procedures that reduce noise levels near the airport, and conduct their operations during airport business hours, typically between 7 A.M. and 11 P.M during the week and until 8 A.M. on weekends. Additional specifics of Santa Monica’s “Fly Neighborly Program” are provided in the Regulatory Setting section of this report, under Aviation Noise. At the same time, the airport provides several resources that allow residents and interested parties to research flight operations and file airport-related noise questions or complaints, with airport staff dedicated to responding to these concerns. As part of this program, the airport publishes monthly and annual reports documenting the noise levels recorded, number of aircraft noise complaints and inquiries, curfew violations, aircraft path deviations, and other data.

Additional reductions in aircraft-generated noise can be anticipated if and when electric planes become more prevalent, as electric planes are quieter than traditional gas-powered aircraft. SMO is already home to a few new electric flight-training aircraft.52F 53 Also as discussed above, SMO is a leader in taking steps to minimize leaded fuel use by offering non-leaded aviation gas available for retail purchase onsite. As more of the aircraft operators flying out of SMO use these non-leaded gasoline alternatives, lead emissions into the air above the airportadjacent neighborhoods are expected to decrease, potentially at significant levels. Continuation of this program is strongly encouraged.

On-airport and near-airport hazards related to accidents or incidents involving aircraft flying into or out of SMO can potentially be reduced through a combination of improvements to airport and airport traffic infrastructure, and continued monitoring and possibly oversight of equipment safety procedures that are the pilot’s responsibility. In 2024, the City of Santa Monica “completed a major airfield project that included replacement of the ailing airfield lighting infrastructure, restoration of airfield markings and runway pavement rehabilitation.” Additional improvements that are being worked on as of the writing of this report include “a new pilot-controlled lighting system and continued pavement rehabilitation on airport ramps and taxiways.”53F 54 All of these improvements
should increase safety and efficiency at the airport.

53 https://nbaa.org/aircraft-operations/airports/smo/availability-of-100r-lead-free-avgas-caps-year-of-positivedevelopments-for-smo/, accessed July 8, 2025. 54 Ibid.

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At the national level, the FAA has been working on modernizing the National Airspace System (NAS) through its Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen).54F 55 This program aims to improve
air traffic control infrastructure, including communications, navigation, surveillance, automation, and information management systems, for the purposes of increasing “the safety, efficiency, capacity, predictability, flexibility, and resiliency of U.S. aviation.” To accomplish these goals, the FAA has implemented new air traffic technologies and procedures, such as satellite-enabled surveillance of aircraft location information that helps air traffic controllers keep track of aircraft.

Other safety and security enhancements that have been implemented or are in the process of being implemented include “state-of-the-art automation systems that support air traffic controllers” to manage and keep track of individual aircraft, especially in congested airspace such as that in southern California. These systems also help to define efficient, arrival (optimized profile descent) and departure (optimized climb profile) flight routes for individual aircraft that help reduce aircraft noise, improve aircraft fuel usage efficiency, and reduce air emissions. The NextGen Southern California Metroplex effort that includes SMO, LAX, and many other southern California airports, was completed in the summer of 2018.55F
56 Finally, at the individual level, pilots should be encouraged to execute thorough, methodical and regular inspections of their aircraft before they take off, and heed any notifications from aircraft manufacturers when a mechanical issue common to a given line of airplanes is recognized, prompting a recall or modification. Airport staff could keep a listing of these recall notices and require pilots to provide evidence that they have undertaken the required improvements to their planes as appropriate.

AIRPORT HAZARDS RESOURCE DIRECTORY
City Resources
City of Santa Monica Public Works Department – Airport Division 3223 Donald Douglas Loop South, Santa Monica, CA 90405
(310) 458-8591
https://www.santamonica.gov/places/city-facilities/santa-monica-airport-smo https://www.santamonica.gov/departments/public-works
Santa Monica Airport Commission
The Commission acts in an advisory capacity to the City Council on matters pertaining to the administration of SMO and other aviation matters affecting the City. The commission meets on the 4th Monday of every month, except in August and December, at 7:00 PM in the Council Chambers. 1685 Main Street – City Council Chambers
Santa Monica, CA 90401
https://www.santamonica.gov/events/airport-commission

55 https://www.faa.gov/nextgen, accessed July 3-9, 2025. 56 https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/community_engagement/socal, accessed July 9, 2025. This website provides several links to YouTube video presentations that describe the Southern California Metroplex system.

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City of Santa Monica Community Development Department
1685 Main Street, Santa Monica, California 92660
(310) 458-2275
https://www.santamonica.gov/departments/community-development City of Santa Monica Fire Department
333 Olympic Drive, Santa Monica, CA 90401
(310) 458-8652 or 911 for emergencies
Santa Monica Office of Emergency Management
333 Olympic Drive, Santa Monica, CA 90401
(310) 458-2263
Email: [email protected]
County Resources
Los Angeles County Airport Land Use Commission (ALUC)
Los Angeles County Department of Regional Planning
320 West Temple Street, Los Angeles, CA 90012
(213) 974-6409
https://planning.lacounty.gov/public-hearings-and-meetings/airport-land-use-commission/ https://planning.lacounty.gov/airport-land-use-planning/ Los Angeles County Fire Department
(323).881-2411
https://fire.lacounty.gov/
Los Angeles Regional Quality Control Board
320 4th Street, Suite 200 , Los Angeles, CA 90013
(213) 576-6600
https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/losangeles/
State Resources
California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Division of Aeronautics California Department of Transportation (Cal Trans) – District 7 100 South Main Street 10th Floor, Los Angeles, CA 90012 (213) 897-3656
https://dot.ca.gov/programs/aeronautics/airport-land-use-planning Governor’s Office of Emergency Services (Cal OES)
https://www.caloes.ca.gov/

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Federal Resources and Programs
Federal Aviation Administration
800 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20591
(866) 835.5322 (866-TELL-FAA)
https://www.faa.gov/
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/faa_regulations https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/community_engagement/socal U.S. Department of Transportation
1200 New Jersey Ave, SE, Washington, DC 20590
(202) 366-4000
https://www.transportation.gov/aviation
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
490 L'Enfant Plaza, SW, Washington, DC 20594
https://www.ntsb.gov/Pages/home.aspx
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
For information regarding developments incompatible with airports and airfields. 451 7th Street, S.W., Washington, DC 20410
(202) 402-3815
https://www.hudexchange.info/programs/environmental-review/airport-hazards/ United States Coast Guard
U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Pacific Southwest District 11 https://www.uscg.mil/
Eleventh District Command Center Number: (800) 246-7236 - For maritime emergency use National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Weather Service
San Diego Weather Forecast Office
11440 W. Bernardo Court, Suite 230, San Diego, CA 92127 (858) 675-8700
https://www.weather.gov/sgx/
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
https://www.epa.gov/environmental-topics/air-topics
https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/epa-region-9-pacific-southwest Publications
Refer to the footnotes of this document for a variety of publications that address airport safety regulations and airport safety hazards in general and specific to the Santa Monica Airport.

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Prepared in collaboration with:
1642 E. Fourth Street,
Santa Ana, California
www.earthconsultants.com

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Local Hazard Mitigation Plan
Volume III: Appendices

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2025 Table of Contents – Volume III Page i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION ......................................................................................... PAGE # VOLUME I: MITIGATION ACTION PLAN
Executive Summary
Resumen Ejecutivo
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Community Profile
Section 3: Risk Assessment
Section 4: Goals and Mitigation Actions
Section 5: Plan Maintenance
VOLUME II: HAZARDS
Section 6: Earthquakes
Section 7: Tsunamis
Section 8: Flood Hazards
Section 9: Landslides
Section 10: Wildfires and Urban Fires
Section 11: Climate Change and Severe Weather
Section 12: Hazardous Materials
Section 13: Airport Hazards
VOLUME III – APPENDICES
Appendix A: Master Resource Directory....................................................................... A-1 Appendix B: Public Participation Process and Meeting Materials.................................. B-1 Appendix C: Economic Analysis of Natural Hazard Mitigation Projects........................ C-1 Appendix D: Acronyms............................................................................................... D-1 Appendix E: Glossary .................................................................................................. E-1 Appendix F: California Disasters Since 1950................................................................ F-1 Appendix G: Major Dams in Los Angeles County ........................................................ G-1 Appendix H: Plates ...................................................................................................... H-1 Appendix I: References ................................................................................................ I-1 Appendix J: City Council Adoption Resolution............................................................. J-1 TABLES
Table B-1: Participants in the 2023-2025 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Process................ B-4 Table B-2: Milestones and Participation Activities Conducted in Support of This LHMP Update .............. B-8

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APPENDIX A: MASTER RESOURCE DIRECTORY
The Resource Directory provides contact information for local, regional, State, and Federal agencies and organizations that are currently involved in hazard mitigation activities. Resources for specific hazards addressed in this document are provided at the end of each hazard section. Please refer to Sections 6 through 13 for these additional resource materials. The organizations included in this Appendix are organized in alphabetical order rather than by governmental level.

The Resource Directory below provides a foundation for potential partners in action item implementation. The Resilience Planning Committee (RPC) may refer to the organizations on the following pages for resources and technical assistance. Given that webpage URLs often change over time, the RPC will maintain and update this master resource directory as needed. This directory may be used by various community members interested in hazard mitigation information and projects.

American Public Works Association (APWA)
Level: National Hazard: Multi www.apwa.org
1200 Main St., Suite 1400
Kansas City, MO 64105-2100
Ph: 816-472-6100
800-848-2792
The APWA is an international educational and professional association of public agencies, private sector companies, and individuals dedicated to providing high quality public works goods and services. Public works and infrastructure covered under the APWA umbrella include, but are not limited to, water, gas, electricity, telephone, mass transportation, communication facilities, and trash collection. This infrastructure and services may be owned and operated by a government agency, or may be provided by privately owned organizations. Regardless of whether publicly or privately owned, these services are considered essential, with their absence resulting in negative impacts to the public’s health and welfare.

American Red Cross Los Angeles Region
Level: County Hazard: Multi http://www.redcross.org/local/california/los-angeles 1450 South Central Avenue,
Los Angeles 90021
Ph: 310-445-9908
1450 11th Street, Santa Monica, 90401 Ph: 310-394-3773
The American Red Cross Los Angeles Region serves nearly 10 million people in 88 cities within Los Angeles County, and some pockets of Ventura and Kern counties. They are dedicated to helping victims of disaster and providing programs and services that help the community prevent, prepare for, and respond to emergencies. The Los Angeles Region chapter is comprised of the following five chapters and two support offices, as follows: Metro and Southeast LA, Greater Long Beach and South Bay, Western Los Angeles, San Gabriel-Pomona Valley, and Northern Valley chapters, and Commerce and Palmdale offices. The Western Los Angeles Chapter office is in Santa Monica. Programs and services that they provide include: response with relief when disaster strikes, help keep the community safe and healthy through CPR, First Aid and other courses; serve military members and their families, teach people how to prepare for and respond to a disaster, and connect families around the world. They also work to ensure that there is a safe and adequate blood supply in the area. The American Red Cross is tasked as the primary agency responsible for federally supported Mass Care Services during disasters per the Nation Response Framework, Emergency Support Function 6. Mass care primarily involves providing shelter and feeding services during a disaster.

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Association of State Floodplain Managers (ASFPM)
Level: Federal Hazard: Flood www.floods.org
8301 Excelsior Drive
Madison, WI 53717
Ph: 608-828-3000
The ASFPM is a scientific and educational nonprofit organization of professionals involved in floodplain management, flood hazard mitigation, the National Flood Insurance Program, and flood preparedness, warning and recovery. Their aim is to reduce flood loss in the nation.

Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC)
Level: National Hazard: Earthquake www.nibs.org/bssc
2121 K Street NW, Suite 800
Washington, DC 20037
Ph: 202-289-7800
The BSSC develops and promotes building earthquake risk mitigation regulatory provisions for the nation and supports advances in building science and technology to improve the built environment. The council’s purpose is to enhance public safety by providing a national forum that fosters improved seismic planning, design, construction and regulation in the building community. Under contract with FEMA, the BSSC develops and maintains the NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions for New Buildings and Other Structures, which are used as the primary resource for the professional design standard ASCE/SEI 7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.

California Department of Conservation
Level: State Hazard: Multi www.conservation.ca.gov
715 P Street, MS-1900
Sacramento, CA 95814
Ph: 916-322-1080
The Department of Conservation provides services and information that promote environmental health, economic vitality, informed land-use decisions and sound management of our State's natural resources. The Department oversees the California Geological Survey (CGS; included separately below), The California Division of Oil, Gas and Geothermal Resources (CalGEM), the Office of Mine Reclamation (DMR), the Land Resource Protection (DLRP), the State Mining and Geology Board, the California Farmland Conservancy Program, and the State Watershed Program, among others.

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California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) Level: State and Local Hazard: Wildfire https://www.fire.ca.gov/ https://www.fire.ca.gov/incidents
715 P Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
Ph: 916-653-5123
CAL FIRE prevents wildfires in the State Responsibility Area using a variety of fire prevention methods and projects, including brush clearance, prescribed fire, defensible space inspections, emergency evacuation planning, fire prevention education, fire hazard severity mapping, and fire-related law enforcement activities.

Despite its name, CAL FIRE is an “all-risk” department and its engines and crews may respond to auto accidents, drownings and other medical aid situations, hazardous materials spills, swift water rescues, search and rescue missions, civil disturbances, train wrecks, and natural disasters such as floods and earthquake response.

CAL FIRE’s website provides reports about all ongoing emergency responses in California, including all wildfires more than 10 acres in size. In addition, the CAL FIRE website lists all of the year’s incidents to date, and statistics on past years’ incidents; resources on defensible space and other programs to reduce the wildfire hazard; various programs, and grants available.

California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) (District 7) Level: State and Local Hazard: Multi http://dot.ca.gov/caltrans-near-me/district-7 100 S. Main Street, 10th Floor
Los Angeles, CA 90012
Ph: 213-897-1200
Caltrans is responsible for the design, construction, maintenance, and operation of the California State Highway system, as well as that portion of the Interstate Highway system within the State's boundaries, amounting to more than 50,000 miles of highway and freeway lanes. Alone and in partnership with Amtrak, Caltrans is also involved in the support of intercity passenger rail service in California. Caltrans also permits more than 400 public-use airports and special-use hospital heliports. Caltrans carries out its mission with six primary programs: Aeronautics, Highway Transportation, Mass Transportation, Transportation Planning, Administration and the Equipment Service Center. Caltrans – District 7 office serves Los Angeles and Ventura Counties. The City of Santa Monica is a local partner with Caltrans District 7. Caltrans has jurisdiction over the Interstate 10 (I-10) freeway and Pacific Coast Highway (PCH), among other routes.

California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Level: State and local Hazard: Flood https://water.ca.gov/ 715 P Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
Ph: 916-653-5791
The DWR manages the water resources of California in cooperation with other agencies, to benefit the State's people, and to protect, restore, and enhance the natural and human environments. The agency was established in 1956 by the State Legislature to plan, design, construct, and oversee the building of the nation’s largest state-built water development and conveyance system. The DWR protects, conserves, develops, and manages much of California’s water supply, including the State Water Project.

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California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA)
Level: State and local Hazard: Multi https://calepa.ca.gov/ https://calepa.ca.gov/environmental-mapping-toolsand-data/ 1001 I Street
Sacramento, CA 95812-2815
Ph: 916-323-2514
CalEPA’s mission is to restore, protect and enhance the environment, to ensure public health, environmental quality and economic vitality. They fulfill this mission by developing, implementing and enforcing environmental laws that regulate air, water and soil quality, pesticide use and waste recycling and reduction.

CalEPA’s departments are at the forefront of environmental science, using the most recent research to shape the state’s environmental laws. CalEPA mapping tools and data website (see link above) provides several resources that allow individuals to search for sites undergoing state or federal cleanup activities, communities most impacted by pollution, water quality and accessibility, urban heat island effects, and other similar information.

CalEPA is organized into several different departments, including the California Air Resources Board (CARB), the Department of Pesticide Regulation (DPR), the Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery (CalRecycle), the Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC), the Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA), and the State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB).

California Geological Survey (CGS)
Level: State and local Hazard: Multi www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs 715 P Street, MS 1901
Sacramento, CA 95814
Ph: 916-445-1825
Southern California Regional Office
320 W. 4th Street, Ste. 850
Los Angeles, CA 90013 (Junipero Serra Building)
Ph: 213-239-0878.

The CGS develops and disseminates technical information and advice on California’s geology, geologic hazards, and mineral resources. In addition to providing technical and mapping services on landslide, earthquake and burned watersheds, the CGS is the state’s scientific representative on tsunami preparedness, mitigation, and response programs.

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California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services (CalOES) Level: State Hazard: Multi www.caloes.ca.gov/
3650 Schriever Avenue
Mather, CA 95655
Ph: 916 845- 8510
The Governor's Office of Emergency Services coordinates overall State agency response to major disasters in support of local government. Cal OES is responsible for assuring the state's readiness to respond to and recover from natural, man-made, and war-caused emergencies, and for assisting local governments in their emergency preparedness, response and recovery efforts. CalOES administers several federal grant programs, including Homeland Security Grant Program, Emergency Management Performance Grant, Infrastructure Protection Grants, and Cybersecurity Grants. CalOES also offers Prepare California, a program to supplement local match-funding requirements with state funding. CalOES offers local jurisdictions and the public many preparedness and hazard education resources, including Listos California that offers multi-lingual disaster readiness tools.

California Governor’s Office of Land Use and Climate Innovation (LCI) Level: State Hazard: Multi https://opr.ca.gov/planning
1400 Tenth Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
Ph: 916-322-2318 Fax: 916-588-3184
Previously known as the Governor's Office of Planning and Research (OPR), LCI, as its new name indicates, serves two main efforts. Under the Planning and Land Use umbrella, this agency provides technical guidance and other resources helpful in drafting and updating general plans; resources to support transportation planning; collaboration with the military on land use planning energy policy; and resources that support local governments with sustainable and resilient land use planning. On the Climate Resilience front, LCI provides resources and grants to help California prepare for the impacts of climate change. The LCI website also provides a link to the State Clearinghouse where environmental documents prepared for CEQA are filed.

California Natural Resources Agency (CNRA)
Level: State Hazard: Multi http://resources.ca.gov
715 P Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
Ph: 916-653-5656
The California Natural Resources Agency restores, protects and manages the state's natural, historical and cultural resources for current and future generations using solutions based on science, collaboration and respect for all the communities and interests involved.

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California Office of the State Fire Marshal (OSFM)
Level: State Hazard: Wildfire, Fire,
Hazardous Materials
https://osfm.fire.ca.gov
715 P Street
Sacramento, CA 94244-2460
Ph: 916-568-3800
Part of the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) team since 1995, the OSFM supports the mission of CAL FIRE by focusing on fire prevention. OSFM regulates buildings in which people live, controls substances which may cause injuries, death and destruction by fire; provides statewide direction for fire prevention within wildland areas; investigates arson fires in the state; licenses those who inspect and service fire protection systems; regulates and approves fireworks; regulates hazardous liquid pipelines; regulates the use of chemical flame retardants; reviews regulations and building standards; trains and educates in fire protection methods and responsibilities; and tracks incident statistics for local and state government emergency response agencies. The OSFM develops and issues the Fire Hazard Severity Zone maps for the state.
0BClimate Mapping for Resilience and Adaptation (CMRA)
Level: Federal and State Hazard: Multi https://resilience.climate.gov/ Web based mapping tool
The CMRA is a mapping portal hosted and managed by NOAA to help the public understand the climaterelated hazards that the nation faces now and in the future. The portal allows viewers to see real-time maps showing where climate-related hazards are occurring today, check how their exposure to five common climate-related hazards is projected to change over time, learn more about climate-related hazards and the federal policies relevant to climate adaptation, and find federal funding opportunities that can help pay for climate resilience projects, including those available through the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law.

Community Rating System (CRS) (of the National Flood Insurance Program) Level: Federal Hazard: Flood www.fema.gov/floodplain-management/communityrating-system P.O. Box 10055
Hyattsville, MD 20782-8055
Ph: 202-646-2500
Loc Ph: 510-627-7100
The Community Rating System (CRS) is a FEMA program that provides incentives to community implementing floodplain management efforts that go beyond the minimum requirements of the NFIP.

Property owners can receive reduced NFIP flood insurance premiums if their jurisdiction implements floodplain management practices that qualify it for a CRS rating.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Region 9 (Pacific Southwest) Level: Regional Hazard: Multi www.epa.gov/aboutepa/epa-region-9-pacificsouthwest 75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
Ph: 415-947-8000
600 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 940
Los Angeles, CA 90017
Ph: 213-244-1800
The mission of the EPA is to protect human health and to safeguard the natural environment through the themes of air and global climate change, water, land, communities and ecosystems, and compliance and environmental stewardship. The EPA Southern California Field Office is located in Los Angeles, with its contact information provided above.

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Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Region IX
Level: Federal Hazard: Multi www.fema.gov
1111 Broadway #1200
Oakland, CA 94607
Ph: 510-627-7100
An agency within the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, FEMA is tasked with responding to, planning for, recovering from and mitigating against disasters. FEMA provides extensive resources to help communities, businesses, and residents prepare for disasters. The Agency is also a major source of funding through grants for hazard mitigation and hazard preparedness. FEMA operates the National Flood Insurance Program and manages a series of mitigation programs and activities, and partners with communities throughout the country. FEMA coordinates the federal response agency support of state and local jurisdictions during disaster events. FEMA also provides reimbursement to jurisdictions for their disaster response costs and facilitates programs to implement mitigation improvements post-disaster.

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Hazard Mitigation Planning Level: Federal and State Hazard: Multi www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/riskmanagement/hazard-mitigation-planning http://www.fema.gov/grants/mitigation/state-contacts
California Governor’s Office of Emergency
Services
3650 Shriever Avenue
Mather, California 95655
Ph: (916) 799-6499
This link directs individuals to FEMA’s website pages dedicated to information on Hazard Mitigation Plans, including laws, regulations and guidelines; mitigation planning grants; mitigation best practices; specific hazards; and tools. FEMA’s Hazard Mitigation Grant Programs (HMGPs) are provided to eligible applicant states/tribes/territories, who in turn provide sub-grants to local government, such as cities. Sub-applicants need to consult the official designated point-of-contact for their applicant state/tribe/territory for information regarding specific programs and application requirements. The second link directs individuals to the points of contact for individual states. In California, HMGP management is handled by the Governor’s Office of Emergency Services (contact information provided above). 1BFederal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Resilience Analysis and Planning Tool (RAPT) Level: Federal and State Hazard: Multi www.fema.gov/about/reports-and-data/resilienceanalysis-planning-tool Web based mapping tool
RAPT gives everyone access to powerful data and GIS mapping that can help everyone understand their community. RAPT includes over 100 preloaded layers including community resilience indicators from peerreviewed research, the most current census demographic data, infrastructure data, and data on weather, hazards, and risk. RAPT also includes easy to use analysis tools, the ability to add in data from other sources, and print and download functions.

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Floodplain Management Association (FMA)
Level: Federal Hazard: Flood https://floodplain.org/
701 Pleasant Grove Ste - 180 Box 121
Roseville, CA 95678
Ph: 916-847-3778
The FMA is a non-profit educational association established in 1990 to promote the reduction of flood losses and to encourage the protection and enhancement of natural floodplain values. Members include representatives from Federal, State and local government agencies, as well as private firms. The association serves as an unbiased forum for legislature, government, industry and science to advance best practices, technologies, policies, regulations, and legal strategies, with a focus on California, Nevada and Hawaii.

Los Angeles County Certified Unified Program Agency (CUPA) Level: County Hazard: Multi http://dpw.lacounty.gov/epd/ust/cupa.cfm County of Los Angeles Department of Public
Works, Environmental Programs Division
900 S. Fremont Avenue,
Annex Building, 3rd Floor
Alhambra, CA 91803-1331
Ph: 1-888-CLEAN-LA
Ph:626-458-3517
Santa Monica’s CUPA: 310-458-4971
Managed by the Los Angeles County Fire Department, the CUPA is the local administrative agency that coordinates programs regulating hazardous materials and hazardous wastes in all unincorporated and most incorporated areas in Los Angeles County. Programs that they administer include: 1) hazardous materials disclosure, 2) business emergency plans, 3) hazardous waste, 4) underground storage tanks, 5) aboveground petroleum storage tanks, and 6) California accidental release prevention. The City of Santa Monica is one of the few cities in Los Angeles County that has its own CUPA.

National Floodplain Insurance Program (NFIP)
Level: Federal Hazard: Flood www.fema.gov/flood-insurance PO Box 10055
Hyattsville, MD 20782-8055
Ph: 877-336-2627
Ph: 202-646-2500
Region 9 Ph: 510-627-7100
The Mitigation Division manages the National Flood Insurance Program and oversees FEMA's mitigation programs. NFIP has of a number of programs and activities, including flood insurance for private property owners, mitigation measures to encourage prevention of flood disasters, and partnerships with communities throughout the country.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Level: National Hazard: Wildfire www.nfpa.org/
1 Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02169-7471
Ph: 800 344-3555
General Ph: 720-237-1752
The mission of the international, non-profit NFPA is to reduce the worldwide burden of fire and other hazards on the quality of life by providing and advocating scientifically based consensus codes and standards, research, training and education. They provide guidance on fire prevention, wildfire preparedness, electrical safety, hazardous materials, community risk reduction, and public safety.

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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Level: Federal Hazard: Multi http://www.noaa.gov
1401 Constitution Avenue, NW Room 5128
Washington, DC 20230
Ph: 202-482-6090
An agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA's historical role has been to predict environmental changes, protect life and property, provide decision makers with reliable scientific information, and foster global environmental stewardship. Some services provided by NOAA include daily weather forecasts, severe storm warnings and climate monitoring, fisheries management, coastal restoration, and marine commerce support.

National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
Level: Federal, Local Hazard: Multi http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/ 3550 S Harbor Blvd Suite 2-202
Oxnard, CA 93035
Local Ph: 805-984-2358
Ph: 202-720-7246
NRCS assists private property owners to conserve their soil, water, and other natural resources by delivering technical assistance based on sound science and suited to a customer's specific needs. Cost shares and financial incentives are available in some cases. The contact information provided above is for the field office closest to Santa Monica, CA.

National Weather Service (NWS)
Level: Federal Hazard: Multi https://www.weather.gov/lox 520 North Elevar Street
Oxnard, CA 93030
Ph: 805-988-6610
A line office within NOAA, the NWS is responsible for providing weather service to the nation. It is charged with the responsibility of observing and reporting the weather, and with issuing forecasts and weather alerts and warnings, including floods and fire weather, in the interest of national safety and economy. Briefly, the priorities for service to the nation are: 1) protection of life, 2) protection of property, and 3) promotion of the nation's welfare and economy. The Oxnard Weather Office is responsible for providing weather information for Los Angeles, Ventura, Santa Barbara, and San Luis Obispo counties, as well as adjacent coastal waters out 60 nautical miles. The Oxnard Weather Office provides information to Santa Monica agencies to prepare for upcoming weather events. The contact information provided above is for NWS Oxnard Weather Office.

National Weather Service, Office of Water Prediction (OWP) Level: Federal Hazard: Flood http://www.weather.gov/owp/ 1325 East West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910
Ph: 301-427-6904
The Office of Hydrologic Development (OHD) reorganized into the Office of Weather Prediction (OWP).

OWP enhances National Weather Service (NWS) products by infusing new hydrologic science, developing hydrologic techniques for operational use, managing hydrologic development by NWS field offices, and providing advanced hydrologic products to meet needs identified by NWS customers. Their products and services improve flood warnings and water resource forecasts. The OWP researchers develops and delivers national hydrologic analyses, forecast information, data, support services and guidance to inform essential emergency services and water management decisions.

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Seismic Safety Commission (SSC)
Level: State Hazard: Seismic https://ssc.ca.gov
3650 Schriever Avenue
Mather, CA 95655
Ph: (916) 263-5506
The California SSC helps to “improve the seismic safety and resiliency of California communities by providing resources and guidance, facilitating research, and fostering collaboration in earthquake preparedness, mitigation, and recovery.” The commission “investigates earthquakes, researches earthquakerelated issues and reports, and recommends to the Governor and Legislature policies and programs to reduce earthquake risk.”
South Coast Air Quality Management District (AQMD)
Level: Regional Hazard: Multi www.aqmd.gov/
21865 Copley Drive
Diamond Bar, CA 91765
Ph: 800-CUT-SMOG
(for air quality complaints)
Reg Ph: 909-396-2000
AQMD is a regional government agency that seeks to achieve and maintain healthful air quality through a comprehensive program of research, regulations, enforcement, and communication. The AQMD covers Los Angeles and Orange Counties, and parts of Riverside and San Bernardino Counties. South Coast AQMD monitors common air pollutants and issues Air Quality Alerts for the Los Angeles region. The AQMD website provides information on wildfire smoke and ash, and safety tips on how to prepare for and respond to air pollution as a result of wildfires.

Southern California Association of Governments (SCAG)
Level: Regional Hazard: Multi https://scag.ca.gov
900 Wilshire Blvd, Suite 1700
Los Angeles, CA 90017
Ph: 213-236-1800
The SCAG functions as a federally designated metropolitan planning organization and state-designated regional transportation planning agency and council of governments for six counties (Los Angeles, Orange, San Bernardino, Riverside, Ventura and Imperial), and 191 cities in an area covering 38,00 square miles.

SCAG is mandated by the Federal government to research and draw up plans for transportation, growth management, hazardous waste management, and air quality.

Statewide California Earthquake Center (SCEC)
Level: Regional Hazard: Seismic www.scec.org/
University of Southern California
3651 Trousdale Parkway, Suite 169
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0742
Ph: 213-740-5843
SCEC (previously known as the Southern California Earthquake Center) gathers new information about earthquakes in California, integrates this information into a comprehensive and predictive understanding of earthquake phenomena, and communicates this understanding to end-users and the general public in order to increase earthquake awareness, reduce economic losses, and save lives. SCEC collaborates with academic, government, industry and other organizations to advance earthquake science by gathering and analyzing data from field observations and laboratory experiments, developing system-level models and simulations of earthquake processes, and communicating that understanding to expand knowledge and reduce earthquake risk. SCEC coordinates the Great ShakeOut Earthquake Drills.

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U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Los Angeles District Level: Federal Hazard: Multi www.spl.usace.army.mil/
915 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 1101
Los Angeles, CA 90017
Ph: 213-452- 3333
The USACE works in engineering and environmental matters, with offices that provide construction management, dam and levee safety, emergency management, planning for various water resource projects, and various others. A workforce of biologists, engineers, geologists, hydrologists, natural resource managers and other professionals provides engineering services to the nation including planning, designing, building and operating water resources and other civil works projects, designing and managing the construction of military facilities and other federal agencies. During disaster events, the USACE may provide technical expertise and operational management over response and recovery activities, such as non-hazardous debris management operations during the Palisades fire.

U.S. Census Bureau (USCB)
Level: Federal Hazard: Multi www.census.gov/
4600 Silver Hill Road,
Washington, DC 20233
Ph: 800-923-8282
Los Angeles Regional Office
2300 West Empire Avenue, Suite 300
Burbank, CA 91504
Ph: 818-267-1700 & 800-992-3530
The USCB is the nation’s leader provider of data about its people and the economy. The agency collects, processes and provides many statistics, some of which are available by census tract or metropolitan statistical area, by county, and by state. The Census Bureau publications collection also includes many current and historical censuses on population and housing. Older census data, which present data describing the people and the economy of each state and county from 1790 to 1960, are also available. The American Community Survey provides information on changing population, housing and workforce. The Decennial Census of Population and Housing counts every resident in the United States every ten years. Census data were used for this study.

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service
Level: Federal Hazard: Wildfire www.usda.gov/
1400 Independence Ave. SW
Washington, D.C. 20250 (mailing address)
Ph: 202-205-8333
1-800-832-1355
Region 5: Pacific Southwest
1323 Club Drive, Vallejo, CA 94592
Ph: 707-562-8737
The Forest Service is an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Forest Service manages public lands in national forests and grasslands. The agency conducts forest research, and provides leadership in sustainable management, and the conservation, use and stewardship of natural and cultural resources on national forests and grasslands of the U.S. It also helps communities, states, local and tribal governments, forest industries and private forest landowners improve conditions in both urban and rural areas, helping to steward about 900 million forested acres in the country. This includes 130 million acres in urban areas.

U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

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Level: Federal Hazard: Multi www.dhs.gov/
2707 Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue SE
Washington, D.C. 20528-0525 (mailing address)
Ph: 202-282-8000
The mission of the DHS is to secure the nation from the many threats that it faces. The DHS was formed in 2002 by combining 22 different federal departments and agencies under one umbrella. The Operational and Support Components that currently make up the DHS include: U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, United States Coast Guard, United States Customs and Border Protection, Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, United States Secret Service, Transportation Security Administration, and Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office, among others. The DHS strives to prevent future attacks against the U.S. and responds to natural and human-made disasters.

United States Geological Survey (USGS)
Level: Federal Hazard: Multi www.usgs.gov/
12201 Sunrise Valley Drive
Reston, VA 20192
Ph: 650-853-8300
1-800-ASK-USGS
Pasadena Field Office: 525 South Wilson Avenue
Pasadena, CA 91106-3212
Ph: 626-583-7811
A division of the U.S. Department of the Interior, the USGS provides reliable science-based information on ecosystems, land use, energy and mineral resources, natural hazards, water use and availability. The USGS also prepares and disseminates maps and images of the Earth’s features, many of which are available to the public. USGS’s Earthquake Hazards Program manages the ShakeAlert Earthquake Early Warning program that detects earthquakes to provide warning to the public and produces ShakeMaps of significant earthquake incidents and scenarios depicting ground motion and earthquake intensity.

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Water Resources Division
Level: Federal Hazard: Multi www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-resources http://ca.water.usgs.gov/
12201 Sunrise Valley Drive
Reston, VA 20192
Ph: 888-275-8747
The USGS Water Resources’ mission is to provide water information that benefits the Nation's citizens; this information is presented in the form of publications, data, maps, and applications software. The USGS Water aims to minimize loss of life and property as a result of water-related natural hazards such as floods, drought, and landslides; effectively manage groundwater and surface-water resources for domestic, agricultural, recreational, and ecological uses; protect and enhance water resources for human health, aquatic health, and environmental quality; and contribute to the wise physical and economic development of our resources for the benefit of present and future generations.

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APPENDIX B: PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
PROCESS and MEETING MATERIALS
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) requires that public input be considered during the development of mitigation plans. Essentially, public participation is a key component to any strategic planning process, and broad-reaching plans such as this one should not be written in isolation. Agency participation offers an opportunity for impacted departments and organizations to provide expertise and insight into the planning process, whereas public participation offers residents and other stakeholders the chance to voice their ideas, interests, and opinions. To that end, this Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan (LHMP, or Plan) is the result of a collaborative effort between various City departments and divisions, local agencies, local residents, other regional and state organizations, and the City’s consultant.

To obtain input from a broad cross-section of the community, preparation of the Santa Monica LHMP included a wide-reaching public participation process. This process included several components, as follows:
1) assembling and involving a Resilience Planning Committee (RPC) comprised of individuals from various City departments and local organizations that are already vested in and/or conduct hazard reduction programs and are knowledgeable of the community; 2) conducting surveys to understand the community’s level of disaster preparedness, interest in increasing their resilience to hazards, and perceived priorities in hazard mitigation, with the data obtained from these surveys used both in the preparation of the City’s Safety Element and the LHMP;
3) hosting several public workshops, both in person and online, to present the findings from the research and analyses conducted as part of the Plan preparation to neighborhood groups, school children, and the community at large, and obtain feedback on the Plan and the process of preparing the Plan; and
4) facilitating several one-on-one meetings with City staff representing various City departments to address specific sections of the Plan, and providing opportunities for local and regional agencies, and the public to review drafts of the LHMP. This last component included publishing the Final Draft Plan on the City’s website with a link that allowed for public comment and input regarding the document.

Additional details of these activities are described in the sections below.

Integrating public participation during the development of the City’s Safety Element and the LHMP resulted in increased public awareness and significant feedback regarding items that residents wanted addressed, in addition to a better understanding of the level of disaster-preparedness at the community-, family-, and individual-level. Moreover, during the preparation of this Plan update, the southern California region was impacted by wildfires; very strong Santa Ana winds; flooding caused by several sequences of atmospheric rivers, winter storms, and Tropical Storm Hilary; and landslides and mudslides caused by these winter storms. These events raised significant awareness among the community of the natural hazards that can impact Santa Monica and the Los Angeles region in general. In response to this, the Plan addresses several of these community issues and concerns, and incorporates new ideas and perspectives into the action items presented in Section 4.

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RESILIENCE PLANNING COMMITTEE AND ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Hazard mitigation in the City of Santa Monica is overseen by the Resilience Planning Committee (RPC), which consists of representatives from the following City departments:
 City of Santa Monica Manager’s Office, Office of Emergency Management  City of Santa Monica Fire Department, Fire Prevention  City of Santa Monica Public Works Department, Administration  City of Santa Monica Public Works, Engineering and Street Services  City of Santa Monica Community Development Department, City Planning  City of Santa Monica Information Services Department, GIS These committee members have an understanding of how the community is structured and how the City’s residents, businesses, and the environment may be affected by both natural and humancaused hazard events. The RPC guided the development of the Plan, and assisted in developing plan goals and action items, identifying stakeholders and plan reviewers, and sharing local expertise to create a more comprehensive Plan. Many of these same individuals or positions will be responsible for implementation of the Plan and review of its effectiveness. The Office of Emergency Management spearheaded, managed and funded this project.

Input on specific sections of the Plan was also provided by representatives from the following agencies and organizations which together are here referred to as the Advisory Committee:

City of Santa Monica Departments
 City of Santa Monica Attorney’s Office
 City of Santa Monica Manager’s Office, Office of Emergency Management  City of Santa Monica Community Development Department, Building and Safety  City of Santa Monica Community Development Department, City Planning  City of Santa Monica Department of Transportation
 City of Santa Monica Finance Department
 Santa Monica Fire Department, Fire Administration
 Santa Monica Fire Department, Fire Prevention
 City of Santa Monica Housing and Human Services Department  City of Santa Monica Information Services Department
 City of Santa Monica Police Department
 City of Santa Monica Public Works Department, Administrative Services  City of Santa Monica Public Works Department, Engineering and Street Services  City of Santa Monica Public Works Department, Office of Sustainability and the Environment  City of Santa Monica Public Works Department, Santa Monica Airport  City of Santa Monica Rent Control Department
Regional Government Partners
 City of Los Angeles, Emergency Management Department
 County of Los Angeles, Office of Emergency Management 
Local Educational Institutions
 Santa Monica College
 Santa Monica-Malibu Unified School District

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2025 Public Participation Process Page B-3
Local Hospitals
 University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Health/Santa Monica Medical Center  Providence Saint John’s Health Center
Local Non-Profits
 American Red Cross Western Los Angeles Chapter
 Westside Food Bank
Local Business Organizations
 Downtown Santa Monica Business Improvement District
 Santa Monica Chamber of Commerce
 Santa Monica Travel and Tourism
Individuals from these agencies and organizations, their titles at the time this update was prepared, and their participation in the process of preparing the Santa Monica LHMP, are identified in Table B-1 below. Abbreviations used in this table are as follows:

CDD = Community Development Department
CIP = Capital Improvement Project
CMO = City of Santa Monica Manager’s Office
CSM = City of Santa Monica
HHS = Housing and Human Services Department
ISD = Information Services Department
LA = Los Angeles
LHMP = Local Hazard Mitigation Plan
OEM = Office of Emergency Management
OES = Office of Sustainability and the Environment
PW = Public Works Department
SMFD = Santa Monica Fire Department
SMMUSD = Santa Monica-Malibu Unified School District
SMPD = Santa Monica Police Department
UCLA = University of California, Los Angeles
The Final Draft of the Plan was presented to three Santa Monica commissions for additional community input. These commissions include the Planning Commission, Building and Fire-Life Safety Commission, and the Commission on Sustainability, Environmental Justice and the Environment. Questions from the commissioners were addressed during the presentations and feedback was incorporated into the final Plan. The Final Plan was presented to the Mayor and City Council members for review prior to adoption of the document.

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Table B-1: Participants in the 2023-2025 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Process Name Agency Title
Participation in Meetings and Other Activities Associated with the LHMP Kick-Off Meeting
(09/14/2023)
1st Workshop
(01/23/2024)
2nd Workshop
(05/15/2024) Other Activities
Lindsay Call CMO-OEM Chief Resilience Officer
X X X
Project Manager and Facilitator. Present for all bi-weekly meetings and workshops; organized and held meetings with various departments and agencies; reviewed and provided input for all text, graphics and presentation materials; provided updates to the 2016 mitigation action items
Naomi Urabe CMO-OEM Administrative Staff
Assistant X X X Facilitated all meetings; was present at almost all bi-weekly meetings; organized sign-in sheets and handouts; organized refreshments and support materials for all meetings.

Patrick Cheng CMO-OEM Emergency Services
Administrator X X X Presented early findings of the LHMP to various neighborhood groups and schools; ran the CrisisTrack analyses presented in the report; provided input to presentation materials.

Melinda Espinoza CMO-Communications Communications and
Marketing Coordinator X
Brandon Ward City Attorney’s Office Deputy City Attorney III X X X Reviewed Section 4-Action Items Ivan Campbell City Attorney’s Office Deputy City Attorney Reviewed Section 13-Airport Hazards Susan Y. Cola City Attorney’s Office Assistant City Attorney Reviewed Section 13-Airport Hazards James Brewster CDD-Building & Safety Inspection Supervisor X X Rachel Kwok CDD-City Planning Environmental Planner
X X
Managed preparation of the Technical Background Report to the Safety Element; prepared the City’s Safety Element update; co-authored the community survey in support of the Safety Element and LHMP; addressed public comments to the Safety Element.

Jing Yeo CDD-City Planning Planning Manager X
Jason Kligier Transportation Chief Planning Officer X
Michelle Kramer Finance Assistant Administrative
Analyst, Procurement X
Nick Felldin Finance Senior Accountant Provided information for Section 4– 2025 action items Joe Cavin SMFD-Prevention Fire Marshal X X Reviewed Section 10; reviewed action items related to fire hazards in Section 4; facilitated access to the new fire hazard severity zone maps.

Dan Caldwell SMFD-Administration Fire Battalion Chief X Participated in the review of action items in Section 4 related to fire hazards.

Patrick Nulty SMFD-Prevention Fire Captain X X Reviewed Section 10; participated in the review of action items in Section 4 related to fire hazards.

Setareh Yavari HHS Housing and Human
Services Manager X X
Marc Amaral HHS Human Services
Administrator X
John Meschyan ISD Principal Network
Engineer X
Prasanna Joshi ISD GIS Analyst X X
Lauren Hartz ISD GIS Analyst X X
Neda Peiravian ISD GIS Analyst X Created City of Santa Monica Hazards Risk Map on City website for public outreach activities.

Brent Crafton SMPD Sergeant X
Christopher Dishlip PW-Administrative Services Assistant Director of Public Works X X X
Sybille Moen PW-Administrative Services Administrative Services Officer
Reviewed Appendix C – Economic Analysis
Alex Nazarchuk PW-Engineering & Street Services City Engineer X Reviewed Section 8 – Flooding; reviewed Section 9 - Landslides; provided updates to the 2016 mitigation action items.

Jason Hoang PW-Engineering & Street Services Senior Civil Engineer X Shannon Parry PW-OES Chief Sustainability Officer X
Ariana Vito PW-OES Senior Sustainability
Analyst X
Sunny Wang PW-Water Resources Water Utilities Manager Reviewed Section 4 – Action Items; reviewed Section 5 – Plan Maintenance; reviewed Section 8 – Flooding Dinaz Krueishy PW-Water Resources Civil Engineering Associate Reviewed Section 4 – Action Items; reviewed Section 5 – Plan Maintenance Amber Richane PW-Architectural Services Principal Design and Planning Manager
Reviewed Section 4 – Action Items; reviewed Section 5 – Plan Maintenance Sebastian Felbeck PW-Architectural Services Senior Construction Manager
Reviewed Section 4 – Action Items
Stelios Makrides PW-Airport Chief Operations Officer Reviewed Section 13 – Airport Hazards

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Name Agency Title
Participation in Meetings and Other Activities Associated with the LHMP Kick-Off Meeting
(09/14/2023)
1st Workshop
(01/23/2024)
2nd Workshop
(05/15/2024) Other Activities
Diana Hernandez PW-Airport Airport Operations
Administrator X
Daniel Quezada PW-Airport X
Rosemine Patel Rent Control Public Information
Manager X X
Jerry Gibson SMMUSD Facility Use Manager X X
Carey Upton SMMUSD Chief Operations Officer X X
Johnnie Adams Santa Monica College Chief of Police X X
Daniel Phillips Santa Monica College Risk Management X
Michael Tuitasi Santa Monica College Emergency Manager, VP of Student Affairs X
Kurt Kainsinger UCLA Health-Emergency
Management and Special
Operations
Director
X
Travis Bilyeu UCLA Health Office of
Emergency Preparedness
Emergency Management
Specialist X X
Alex Lichtenstein UCLA Health- Office of
Emergency Preparedness
Assistant Director X
Alexandria WenscottWayneProvidence Saint John’s Health Center
Emergency Manager and
Safety Director X
Savanna Fiehler American Red Cross-Western LA
Chapter X X
Judy Kruger Santa Monica Chamber of
Commerce
President/CEO X
Lauren Salisbury Santa Monica Travel & Tourism Vice President of Communications X X
Jeremy Ferguson Downtown Santa Monica, Inc. Operations and Placemaking Director X
Jillian De Vela City of Los Angeles Emergency
Management Department X X
Sinan Khan Los Angeles County-Office of
Emergency Management X
Anna Batalin Westside Food Bank X
Members of the Consultant Team
Tania González Earth Consultants International Vice-President, Senior Project Consultant X X X
Consultant in charge of project; prepared presentations for all meetings and workshops; attended all bi-weekly meetings and additional virtual meetings with specific individuals; managed the preparation of the graphics and wrote the final draft of the LHMP.

Candice Weber Terra Nova Planning & Research GIS Specialist As sub-consultant to ECI, ran the HazUS models for the LHMP.

Maria Herzberg Earth Consultants International Senior Staff Geologist-GIS Prepared several of the data appendices; prepared several of the GIS files and graphics for report and presentations.

Clay Kelty Earth Consultants International Staff Geologist Wrote preliminary drafts of Sections 6, 7, and 12.

Collette Morse Morse Planning Group Principal As sub-consultant to ECI, wrote preliminary drafts of Sections 8 and 9.

Eva Kinnebrew Environmental Scientist As sub-consultant to ECI, prepared some of the charts for Sections 2 and 11, and wrote preliminary drafts of those sections.

Aaron Martin Earth Consultants International Staff Geologist-GIS Prepared several of the final GIS files for the report, and wrote parts of Section 12.

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2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 6

PROCESS FOLLOWED
Santa Monica’s first LHMP was approved by the City Council on September 28, 2004, and that document was approved by FEMA and Cal OES in 2005. The most recent LHMP before this 2025 update was approved by City Council on March 22, 2016, with the updating process conducted between July 2013 and August 2015. The 2016 plan was referred to as the “City of Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan.” Efforts to update the 2016 document were meant to begin in 2020, but the COVID-19 pandemic derailed those plans. Thus, activities related to this most recent update began in July 2023, upon the deactivation of Santa Monica’s COVID-19 Emergency Operations Center. Grant outreach activities have been supported with funding from FEMA’s Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, administered by the California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services.

This document is the product of that effort, which includes substantial additions and modifications to the 2016 Plan. The additions and modifications reflect our increased understanding of the impact of climate change on several weather-related hazards such as flooding, wildfires, sea-level rise, extreme heat events, and strong winds; the use of HazUS and other software to better estimate the costs associated with hypothetical but probable hazard scenarios, including earthquakes, tsunamis, flooding, and inundation related to the catastrophic failure of Stone Canyon dam; and a more thorough discussion on the impacts that the hazards discussed can have on sensitive and priority populations. There are several modifications addressed in this 2025 update, but the most significant ones are related to the format of the action items that the City has identified as priorities for the next five years (see Section 4). City staff found that the action items listed in the 2016 document were more focused on public safety preparedness than hazard mitigation. While public safety and City department readiness is a critical element to disaster response, the 2025 update focuses on hardening City infrastructure and addressing planning vulnerabilities.

Meetings and workshops held for this 2025 Plan were facilitated and organized by Lindsay Call and Naomi Urabe from the City’s Office of Emergency Management, and the City’s consultant, Tania Gonzalez of Earth Consultants International (ECI). These individuals met virtually every other week for the duration of the project to discuss scheduling, specific questions related to the sections being prepared at that time, and discuss input from others. The larger meetings with the Resilience Planning and Advisory committee members, and public workshops held as part of this LHMP update are summarized in the following table. Specific milestones are also listed in Table B-2. Reduced copies of the PowerPoint presentations prepared for the PRC and Advisory Committee meetings, and for the public workshops are provided in this Appendix, after Table B-2. The flyers announcing the Public Surveys and Workshops are also included.

In addition to the City departments and local organizations and stakeholders listed in Table B-1 above, input from other state and federal agencies was also sought as the team prepared the various sections of the report. This list only includes specific discussions related to the LHMP and does not include other activities between agencies on disaster preparedness or response. These agencies include:
 California Geological Survey – on issues regarding tsunamis and tsunami scenarios using HazUS
 Los Angeles County Department of Beaches and Harbors, who provided the team with copy of their Coastal Resiliency Study Final Report
 American Red Cross – who provided information on the Woolsey fire, including number of

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people within the evacuation zone, activation of local shelters, evacuation of Malibu, and Santa Monica housing the Malibu Emergency Operations team and providing communications support; and also provided the most recent, updated shelter list  CAL FIRE – specifically regarding the new fire hazard severity zone maps recently issued by the state
 Verisk – regarding the City’s past participation on the Community Rating System (CRS)  City of Culver City – to request a copy of their LHMP with an emphasis on the use of the STAPLEE process
 FEMA Region 9 – regarding the submittal of the LHMP and review timing  Cal OES – regarding the submittal of the LHMP and review timing  Beverly Hills Fire Department – regarding LHMP process and best practices  Culver City Fire Department, OEM – regarding LHMP process and best practices  West Hollywood Community Safety Department – regarding LHMP process and best practices
Abbreviations used on Table B-2 are identified below:

AM = “Ante meridiem,” referring to the time between midnight and noon Cal OES = California Office of Emergency Services
CDD = Community Development Department
CERT = Community Emergency Response Team
CGS = California Geological Survey
ECI = Earth Consultants International, Inc.

GIS = Geographic Information System
HazUS = Hazards US, a software used to estimate losses caused by a variety of natural hazards HHS = Housing and Human Services Department
ISD = Information Services Department
LA = Los Angeles
LAX = Los Angeles Airport
LHMP = Local Hazard Mitigation Plan
OEM = Office of Emergency Management
OES = Office of Sustainability and the Environment
PM = “Post meridiem,” referring to the time between noon and midnight PW = Public Works Department
RPC = Resilience Planning Committee
SMFD = Santa Monica Fire Department
SMMUSD = Santa Monica-Malibu Unified School District
SMO = Santa Monica Airport
SMPD = Santa Monica Police Department

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Table B-2: Milestones and Participation Activities Conducted in Support of This LHMP Update Date Milestone / Activity Summary
April 20, 2023 Pre-proposal meeting Virtual meeting (2:30-3:00 PM) between Lindsay Call (OEM) and Tania Gonzalez (ECI) to discuss the City’s interest in receiving a proposal from ECI to update their LHMP. Following this call, ECI prepared and submitted a proposal to the City.

June 27, 2023 Contract signed The City of Santa Monica and Earth Consultants International, Inc. (ECI) entered a contractual agreement with ECI tasked with updating the City’s LHMP.

July 11, 2023 Internal Kick-off
meeting
Virtual meeting (10:00-11:00 AM) between Lindsay Call, Naomi Urabe and Tania Gonzalez to discuss the project with an emphasis on the planning process and proposed methods to engage the public.

July 2023 Resilience and
Advisory Committees
welcoming package
prepared
During the month of July, ECI prepared an introductory package outlining the purpose of LHMPs, the regulatory background, the process, schedule, and role of the advisory committee. The City forwarded these materials to City staff across all City departments and other organizations to identify individuals that were interested in participating in the LHMP update process, and the individuals that would be part of the RPC. A copy of this handout is included in this appendix.

September 7,
2023
Logistics meeting for
kick-off meeting and
presentation
Virtual meeting (11:00 AM-Noon) between Lindsay Call, Naomi Urabe and Tania Gonzalez, to discuss lastminute details regarding the kick-off meeting, including edits to the PowerPoint presentation, sign-in sheets, and logistics.

September 14,
2023
Kick-off meeting In-person meeting (10:00 AM-Noon) at the Public Safety Facility, OEM, 2nd Floor, 333 Olympic Blvd., Santa Monica, to kick-off the project. 33 people attended. Most attendees were physically present; a few joined remotely. Participants are identified on Table B-1 above. The PowerPoint presentation used for this meeting is included in this appendix.

September 15
– December
30, 2023
Preliminary research
for the hazards
sections and HazUS
analyses
During this period, ECI conducted preliminary research and analysis of the hazards identified; compiled the results of the questionnaire presented at the kick-off meeting regarding hazards that could impact the city, and provided data to Terra Nova so they could run the HazUS analyses, including earthquakes, tsunami, flooding, and inundation scenarios. Preliminary HazUS results were provided to the City on November 1st.

November 15,
2023
CDD / OEM meeting Meeting between Rachel Kwok (CDD) and Lindsay Call (OEM) to develop the Safety Element / LHMP public survey on local hazards and disaster preparedness.

January 16,
2024
Community Survey
was published
The community survey for the Safety Element and LHMP was published online, with paper copies available in both English and Spanish available at both the Main Library and the Pico Branch library. The survey page could be accessed here (survey is now closed, but link connects to the webpage). The flyer announcing the survey is included in this appendix. The survey was highlighted in the City’s staff newsletter and other social media platforms.

January 16,
2024
Preparation meeting
for upcoming
Workshop
Virtual meeting (2:30-3:30 PM) with Lindsay Call, Naomi Urabe, Patrick Cheng and Tania Gonzalez attending, to discuss the upcoming workshop with the Advisory Committee. Topics discussed included PowerPoint presentation, ways to capture input from the committee, and logistics regarding the sign-in of committee members attending.

January 23, Resilience and In-person workshop (10:00 AM – 2:00 PM) held at the Santa Monica Institute, 330 Olympic Blvd., 2nd Floor.

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2025 Public Participation Process Page B-9
Date Milestone / Activity Summary
2024 Advisory Committees
Workshop No. 1
41 people + consultant invited; 21 attended. The participants are identified on Table B-1 above. A copy of the PowerPoint presentation for this workshop is included in this appendix. The group identified several issues to be considered as part of the LHMP update. These included: 1) Plans and regulations regarding emergency shelters, water self-sufficiency, incorporating the City’s coastal action plan; 2) Education and awareness, including information and alarms for tsunamis, Red Cross preparedness programs for different populations (school children, adults in seismic zones, seniors); 3) Natural protection of micro forests, tree canopy and sand/beach dunes; 4) Structure and infrastructure including breakwater at the pier, resilience hubs, seismic retrofit program, earthquake gas shut-off valves, retrofit of water pipes, and earthquake early warning system; 5) Slopes and the bluffs, with an emphasis on proactive bluff maintenance, drainage, resources from state and federal agencies to repair slopes, estimates of potentially impacted structures and impact on lost revenue; 6) wildland fires and their impact on structures along the northern City boundary, loss of revenue due to school closures, impact on asthma patients and emergency department visits, costs to fire department per fire event, public safety shutoffs, and potential personal impacts to staff resulting in absenteeism; 7) Hazardous materials with an emphasis on costs per response event, worst-case scenarios to be considered, proximity of hazmat sites to schools and other sensitive populations, “ocean burping,” dispatch issues, and natural gas emissions associated with Playa Vista; and 8) Aircraft hazards, including possible increase in noise related to LAX post closure of SMO, generally small number of passengers, potential impact of aircraft crash on people on the ground, contamination costs associated with historical uses and use of foam, and potential use of SMO for response capabilities.

January –
February 2024
Community
Emergency Response
(CERT) Training
meetings
As part of the CERT training meetings, the OEM team provided general information on the LHMP, the specific hazards that are likely to impact Santa Monica, and advocated for CERT training participants to take the LHMP survey to share their feedback on disaster events and preparedness.

February 2,
2024
Presentation to the
Santa Monica
Unified School
District – Grant
Elementary School
Lindsay Call and Patrick Cheng of OEM made a presentation on natural hazard education and shared information on natural hazard project-based learning curriculum to all 3rd grade classes, and encouraged the children to share the information learned with their parents and caregivers. They also shared information with school staff on the LHMP Community Workshops and the opportunity for residents to provide feedback on hazards and personal preparedness.

February 12,
2024
Meeting regarding
HazUS tsunamis
scenarios
Online meeting with representatives from CGS and CalOES regarding tsunami scenarios and loss estimates.

Organized by Lindsay Call, attended by Nicholas Graehl CGS), Todd Becker (CalOES), Patrick Cheng (OEM), and Tania Gonzalez (ECI). The meeting was called to discuss the tsunami scenarios using HazUS prepared by the consultant for the LHMP. The consultant considered a near-source tsunami caused by a worst-case earthquake scenario on the offshore section of the Palos Verdes fault in the Santa Monica Bay that could potentially generate a significant tsunami. The CGS/CalOES team forwarded to us a poster they prepared that evaluated a teletsunami originating off Alaska, with HazUS loss estimates calculated at the county level. A decision was made to rely more heavily on the numbers provided by CGS/CalOES, but mentioning the possibility of a near-shore event.

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2025 Public Participation Process Page B-10
Date Milestone / Activity Summary
March 4,
2024
Northeast Neighbors
Community Meeting
Patrick Cheng of OEM gave a presentation on the LHMP at this neighborhood meeting. He shared information on the LHMP survey and opportunity for residents to provide feedback on hazards and personal preparedness actions.

April 2, 2024 Presentation to the
Wilmont
Neighborhood
Organization
Patrick Cheng of OEM gave a presentation on general disaster preparedness related to specific hazards likely to impact Santa Monica. He also shared information on the LHMP Community Workshops emphasizing these workshops provide residents with the opportunity to provide feedback on hazards and personal preparedness.

April 8, 2024 Presentation to the
Ocean Park
Association
Patrick Cheng of OEM gave a presentation on general disaster preparedness related to specific hazards likely to impact Santa Monica. He also shared information on the LHMP Community Workshops emphasizing these workshops provide residents with the opportunity to provide feedback on hazards and personal preparedness.

April 9, 2024 LHMP Community
Workshops Flyer
published
OEM began distributing a flyer in English and Spanish advertising the upcoming community workshops (April 30 and May 2nd) to discuss the LHMP. Announcements regarding the workshops and inviting all members/residents to attend were placed on social media; sent via email to all city agencies, past CERT trainees, and all city neighborhood groups; and flyers were distributed to libraries, schools, City departments, and other agencies. A copy of the flyer that was posted on social media, sent in emails, and posted as hardcopy at various locations around the city, is included in this appendix.

April 10, 2024 CDD / OEM Meeting Meeting between Cary Fukui (CDD), Roxanne Tanemori (CDD), Lindsay Call (OEM), and Rachel Kwok (CDD) to discuss the Local Coastal Program update and sea level rise mitigation to ensure consistency between the Safety Element and LHMP updates.

April 12, 2024 Preliminary
CrisisTrack estimates
completed
Patrick Cheng (OEM) used the CrisisTrack damage assessment software to estimate the damages, in US dollars, for properties in Santa Monica within the tsunami, and coastal flooding zones. Because at the time no part of the city was included within a fire hazard severity zone, the wildfire loss estimates for the city were zero.

April 15, 2024 Presentation to the
Commission on
Sustainability,
Environmental
Justice and the
Environment
Rachel Kwok of CDD and Lindsay Call of OEM made a presentation on the revisions to the City’s Safety Element and LHMP. Lindsay provided information on LHMP’s basic components, importance of community feedback processes, and opportunities to contribute at the upcoming community workshops. Feedback from the Commissioners included:
• Use of best practice reports on sea level rise, be example for other coastline communities • Importance of including extreme heat events in LHMP report and recommendation to consider mitigation measures for disadvantaged community members (elderly, persons without AC) and daytime outdoor workers
There was a question on the seismic fault zones, how the zones were determined, and whether the zone is related to damage during the Northridge Earthquake.

April 18, 2024 Santa Monica Malibu
Unified School
District Board of
In addition to both the Grant Elementary presentation on natural hazard (February 2nd) and attending Natural Hazards Design Fair (March 8th) to support Grant Elementary school’s disaster curriculum, OEM advocated for projects on natural hazards to assist with family/caregiver education on disaster preparedness. During the

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Date Milestone / Activity Summary
Education Meeting Board Meeting, OEM provided information how partnering on the 3rd grade project allowed OEM to share LHMP survey information with students’ parents. Shared thanks for the District’s participation in the LHMP Resilience Planning Committee and advocate for school participation in upcoming LHMP Community Workshops.

April 22, 2024 Preparation meeting
for upcoming
community
workshops
Online meeting, (2:30-3:30 PM) with Lindsay Call (OEM), Patrick Cheng (OEM), Naomi Urabe (OEM), and Tania Gonzalez (ECI) participating, to discuss the PowerPoint presentations for the upcoming community workshops. Both English and Spanish versions will be prepared, with Spanish translation of the English version provided by a consultant retained by the City. Preliminary logistical issues regarding the meeting were also discussed.

April 29, 2024 Preparation meeting
for upcoming
community
workshop
Online meeting (2:30-3:30 PM) with Lindsay Call (OEM), Patrick Cheng (OEM), Naomi Urabe (OEM), and Tania Gonzalez (ECI) participating, to discuss last minute details on the PowerPoint presentations for the community workshops.

April 30, 2024 Community
Workshop No. 1
Workshop held at the Thelma Terry Community Room at Virginia Avenue Park, 2200 Virginia Ave Park, Santa Monica, 90404 (6:00-8:00 PM). Meeting was to be hosted in Spanish with English language translation.

Unfortunately, no members of the public attended the workshop even though the meeting was advertised several weeks in advance, as described above. No presentation was made.

In addition to the PowerPoint presentation (also included in this appendix), oversized copies of five hazards maps were printed and hung on easels in the meeting room for people to review and comment on. The maps highlighted included the Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Fault Zone map, the Seismic Hazards map, Dam Inundation map related to catastrophic failure of Stone Canyon dam, Tsunami inundation map, and a composite map showing all identified natural hazards in the city of Santa Monica. The translator and staff from both OEM and CDD reviewed and discussed the maps. Questions regarding the hazards shown on the figures were addressed by the Consultant.

May 2, 2024 Community
Workshop No. 2
Workshop held at the Library Community Room at Montana Avenue Branch Library, City of Santa Monica, 1704 Montana Ave, Santa Monica, CA 90403 (6:00-7:30 PM). Hosted in English with Spanish language translation available. Five members of the public attended this workshop in addition to staff from OEM. The presentation was made in English; no translation services were needed. The same PowerPoint presentation that was given at the online workshop on May 22, 2024 (see below) was used for this workshop. The presentation is on YouTube and can be still viewed.

As with the previous workshop, in addition to the PowerPoint presentation, oversized copies of five hazard maps were hung on easels around the room. Questions from the public regarding the hazards shown on the maps were addressed by members of the OEM team and/or the consultant.

May 6, 2024 Compiled
Community Survey
Responses
Naomi Urabe (OEM) compiled all online and paper responses to the Community survey that had been prepared by CDD and OEM in support of the Safety Element and the LHMP for discussion and consideration as the team moved forward, and in preparation for the upcoming Advisory Committee Workshop on May 15th. 178 people took the survey (1 person submitted 2 entries, for a total of 179 responses), with 168 people

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Date Milestone / Activity Summary
submitting their responses online, and 10 submitting paper copies to the library. The survey asked respondents to list the hazards that they have experienced while living/working in Santa Monica. Responses included: earthquake, adverse weather, smoke from wildfires, drought, extreme heat, structure fires, burglaries, infections (likely Covid), failure of critical infrastructure, active shooter, civil unrest, security incident. Several replied “none.” With the exception of 8 individuals, the majority reported that they have taken actions to prepare for a natural disaster or emergency. Actions reported include preparation of an emergency supply kit, storing sufficient water supplies, maintaining smoke alarms and fire extinguishers, signed up for emergency alerts, and purchasing rental or home insurance. Many renters reported not being able to make improvements to their units and many also said that limited income prevented them from being better prepared for an emergency.

Feedback on action items that the respondents said that the City should consider is summarized below:

1. Insurance coverage: describe types of insurance coverage that residents may need and recommend that all property owners review their insurance coverage with their brokers, including renters’ insurance.

2. Training and Neighborhood Watch: Consider the City helping neighborhoods organize themselves; provide training, workshops and drill exercises (both in-person and online); make these programs available to residents and businesses; consider Emergency Preparedness and Response information made available at City events, public library, and the farmers’ market; provide information on what to do in event of an aircraft accident, active shooter, cyberattack, terrorist attack; provide information on preparedness kits. Training should be ongoing.

3. Supply distribution: The City should consider providing hazard kits, subsidize battery backup systems, 5-gallon water bottles on an annual rotation/exchange program. These could be provided free or at cost, but with City organizing the availability of these supplies to make it convenient.

4. Communication: Provide emergency information, like telephone numbers and websites, on handy magnetic cards or similar format; consider preparing and distributing a reference sheet with action items and necessary supplies for a variety of hazards; improve communication with schools; provide information on emergency services, shelters, and evacuation plans; make communication of hazards interesting (“fun”).

5. Seismic retrofit and code changes: Consider a low-interest loan program for condominiums and other structures and infrastructure that need to be seismically strengthened; change zoning codes to avoid building in hazard areas; publicly report status of structures that need to be seismically retrofitted; take action against landlords delinquent in fixing their buildings; provide a means by which renters can notify the City of safety infractions and buildings that have not been fixed.

6. Extreme heat: City needs to be better prepared for extreme heat events; adopt a formal policy to make air conditioning mandatory in all buildings including rent-controlled apartments; provide more heating and/or cooling centers; develop public infrastructure to help with heat mitigation (free water stations, cooling zones with water misters, etc.); make cooling centers available for pets.

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2025 Public Participation Process Page B-13
Date Milestone / Activity Summary

7. Infrastructure: City needs to upgrade and seismically retrofit the aging water pipes; bury electrical lines; ensure resiliency of City infrastructure and critical facilities; grade down alleys when they are re-surfaced; provide more streetlights; keep sidewalks clear so persons with mobility issues can pass safely at all times; maintain the Santa Monica airport to be used for evacuation and emergency response; retain more City staff in charge of preparedness and mitigation projects.

8. Crime: Improve safety in neighborhoods, especially crime and nuisances caused by unhoused individuals; consider Ring-camera mandatory laws; surveillance drones and security cameras at the beach.

9. Other issues: Consider local programs for food resiliency, including locally grown food and community gardening; curtail growth by not permitting tall buildings; City should only buy and use software with proven track record; do not approve projects that include road design that obstructs emergency response vehicles.

May 6, 2024 Public Works / OEM
Meeting
Lindsay Call of OEM met with the Public Works Department leadership team to discuss the findings from the LHMP, input from the public survey (see above), and discuss potential action items to raise at the upcoming 2nd Advisory Committee meeting/workshop (on May 15).

May 13, 2024 City Attorney’s
Office / OEM
Meeting
Meeting between Lindsay Call (OEM) and Brandon Ward of the City Attorney’s Office to prepare for the upcoming 2nd Advisory Committee meeting/workshop and direction on language to use in the mitigation action items.

May 13, 2024 Test for Online
Community
Workshop
Virtual meeting and test (11:15-11:45 AM) between Lindsay Call (OEM), Naomi Urabe (OEM), and Tania Gonzalez (ECI) to confirm that the link for the online public workshop to be held on May 22nd (see below) worked correctly, and to discuss last-minute logistical details for the in-person Advisory Committee workshop.

May 15, 2024 Resilience and
Advisory Committees
Workshop No. 2
In-person workshop (10:00 AM – 2:00 PM) held at the Santa Monica Institute, 330 Olympic Drive, 2nd Floor, Santa Monica. 46 people plus consultant invited; 19 people attended.

At this meeting, Tania Gonzalez (ECI) first reminded the workshop participants of the LHMP process, with an emphasis on the main items that need to be covered in these documents and the types of action items that should be considered. Reminded the committee members that mitigation actions need to identify the responsible agency or agencies, potential funding sources and constraints, the timeline for implementation, and the plan goals being addressed. Re-introduced the STAPLEE process and provided examples of possible mitigation actions. Then, provided a summary of the hazards being addressed in the LHMP, including loss estimates developed for several earthquake scenarios, a 20-foot run-up tsunami, coastal flooding using the FEMA maps, inundation of the eastern portion of the city as a result of failure of Stone Canyon dam, and after-earthquake structural fires. Based on the loss estimates developed, the hazards were ranked into high risk and lower risk to Santa Monica. The participants were then asked to break into several working groups to develop potential mitigation actions that address the requests from the community. The action items proposed were organized based on type (local planning, local assessment and regulations, structures and infrastructure improvement, natural systems improvements, public education and awareness, and City4.S.c Packet Pg. 1223 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 3: Appendices [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Appendix B
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2025 Public Participation Process Page B-14
Date Milestone / Activity Summary
readiness initiatives. Committee members were told to expect an online survey where they would be asked to vote on the action items that they consider to be top priorities.

May 21, 2024 OEM / CDD / ECI Virtual meeting between Lindsay Call (OEM), Rachel Kwok (CDD) and Tania Gonzalez (ECI) to discuss the disaster preparedness, response and recovery section of the Safety Element, and similar items to be covered in the LHMP.

May 22, 2024 Community
Workshop No. 3
Online community workshop (7:00-8:30 PM), presented by Tania Gonzalez in English, moderated by Lindsay Call. The meeting was recorded and uploaded to YouTube, where it is still available for viewing.

Availability to this YouTube recording was advertised in the City of Santa Monica News website (SaMoNews) and a several other City of Santa Monica webpages. 58 people participated in the online community workshop. As of August 5, 2025, there were 318 views of the presentation recording on the City’s YouTube channel.

May 28 – July
10, 2024
July 30, 2024
Local Hazards
Prioritization Survey
Survey results were
compiled
An online survey was sent to all 48 individuals in the Resilience and Advisory Committees that participated in the LHMP update process. The survey included all proposed action items developed during the workshop on May 15th, and asked individuals to rank the action items within each category from highest to least priority. 28 responses were received. The results of the survey were compiled at the end of July, with the results used to prepare Section 4 in the LHMP.

August 15 –
September 30,
2024
Public review of the
Final Draft of the
Santa Monica Safety
Element
The Final Drafts of the City’s Safety Element and Technical Background Report were posted online for the public to review and comment on during the 45-day public review period. A total of 7 public comment letters were received. The CDD (Rachel Kwok) provided a link for comments, with all comments addressed in the Final version of the Safety Element.

August 20,
2024
PW / OEM Meeting Lindsay Call (OEM) facilitated a meeting with the Public Works Department (PW) leadership team to discuss the hazard mitigation action items that were identified by the Resilience Planning Committee.

August 27,
2024
Department Head
Meeting
Lindsay Call (OEM) made a presentation to all the Santa Monica Department Heads (Executive Team) to present the findings of the hazard analyses and the mitigation actions being proposed. The PowerPoint presentation for this meeting is included in this appendix.

September 26,
2024
CDD / OEM Meeting Meeting between Lindsay Call (OEM) and Community Development Department staff to review the Safety Element and LHMP progress, and review the public comments on the Safety Element. The public comments received were used to inform revisions to the Safety Element and the action items in the LHMP.

October 9,
2024
Planning
Commission Meeting
Representatives from CDD (Rachel Kwok) and OEM (Lindsay Call) made a presentation to the Commission to update them on the Safety Element and the LHMP.

October 30,
2024
Interdepartmental
Meeting
Meeting between OEM (Lindsay Call) and representatives from the CDD (Rachel Kwok), SMPD (Alejandro Mendoza), ISD-GIS (Lauren Hartz and Neda Peiravian), and DOT (Jason Kligier) to finalize the evacuation routes to be included in the Safety Element, and to finalize the mitigation actions in the LHMP related to evacuation planning.

November 13,
2024
Building Safety
Commission Meeting
Representatives from CDD (Rachel Kwok) and OEM (Lindsay Call) updated the Commission on the Safety Element and the LHMP. Commissioner McLaughlin prepared a series of questions addressing specific hazard

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Date Milestone / Activity Summary
concerns (water supply, hazardous materials, bluff maintenance, seismic upgrade of buildings, tsunami/coastal flooding, emergency plan and essential facilities, wildfires and smoke impacts, extreme heat events, and energy resilience) that CDD and OEM representatives addressed, with action items identified for both the Safety Element and the LHMP.

November 25,
2024
PW / OEM Meeting Lindsay Call (OEM) organized a meeting with Public Works Department (PW) (Peter James, Stelios Makrides, Christopher Dishlip) to finalize the hazard mitigation action items identified that would fall under the purview of PW for implementation.

February 3,
2025

SMFD / CDD / OEM
Meeting
Online meeting (1:30-2:30 PM) with representatives from the Santa Monica Fire Department (Joe Cavin, Patrick Nulty, Daniel Galvan), Planning Division (Rachel Kwok, Jing Yeo), OEM (Lindsay Call) and consultant (Tania Gonzalez) to discuss Fire Hazards section with an emphasis on additional action items and expectation that the State will release new fire hazard severity zone maps that will impact Santa Monica.

Additional action items to be considered include defensible space, parking restrictions and construction bans on red-flag days, hardening and redundancy of water supplies in fire hazard zones, and non-combustible fencing between properties.

February 6,
2025
North of Montana
Association Meeting
Santa Monica Fire Department and OEM staff met with neighbors to discuss Palisades Fire incident and listened to public questions/comments about potential improvements. This feedback was used by OEM and SMFD to develop post-fire mitigation action items.

February 11,
2025
Safety Element
Adoption
City Council adopted the Safety Element Update of the General Plan. CDD (Rachel Kwok) made a presentation. OEM (Lindsay Call), SMFD, and consultant (Tania Gonzalez) attended meeting to be available to answer questions related to the LHMP update and general emergency preparedness and response questions.

February 24,
2025
Sustainability
Commission Meeting
Representatives from CDD (Rachel Kwok) and OEM (Lindsay Call) updated the Commission on the Safety Element and the LHMP. Information was provided on the City’s response and recovery to the Palisades fire.

Listened to public questions and comments regarding potential improvements. This feedback was used by OEM and SMFD to develop post-fire mitigation actions that were included in the LHMP.

February 26,
2025
Santa Monica
Palisades Fire
Recovery Town Hall
Meeting
Virtual meeting where federal, regional, and local government representatives presented information on the Palisades fire recovery. This feedback was used by OEM and SMFD to develop post-fire mitigation action items incorporated into the LHMP update.

March 13,
2025

SMFD / OEM
Meeting
In-person meeting between OEM (Lindsay Call) and SMFD personnel (Tom Clemo, Dan Caldwell, Daniel Galvan) to discuss the Palisades fire and additional mitigation actions to be recommended based on the immediate lessons learned.

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Date Milestone / Activity Summary
March 19,
2025

SMFD / OEM
Meeting
Presentation by OEM for SMFD Command & General Staff on hazard analysis findings and proposed mitigation action items.

March 25,
2025

SMFD / OEM
Meeting
Meeting with City Fire Marshall (Joe Cavin) to discuss revised fire hazard severity maps and finalize LHMP mitigation action item updates.

June 9, 2025 HHS / OEM Meeting Meeting with City Housing and Human Services Department staff (Alana Riemermann) to discuss the Aging and Disability Action Plan’s draft goals to ensure alignment with LHMP mitigation action items.

July 30, 2025 PW / Water
Resources / OEM
Meeting
Meeting with Public Works staff (Sunny Wang, Dinaz Krueishy) to discuss hazard mitigation action items related to water infrastructure improvements.

August 28–
September 28,
2025
Final Draft of LHMP
posted on City’s
website for public
review
Document was posted online on the City’s website. Hard copies of the draft LHMP were also made available to the public at the Main and Pico libraries. The Draft Plan was accompanied by a survey that allowed the public to provide feedback on each individual section. The survey was open for 30 days, between August 28 and September 28, 2025. Two individuals provided feedback. The comments provided were addressed in a response to comments document included here, in Appendix B, and some of the comments resulted in minor changes to the text of the document.

October 8,
2025
Presentation of the
LHMP to the
Building and Life
Safety Commission
Lindsay Call (OEM) gave a PowerPoint presentation on the findings of the LHMP to the commissioners.

Questions from the commissioners were addressed at the meeting, and in some cases, changes were made to some sections of the report, as follows:
1: Are electrical grids and cyber issues included in the Plan? The Plan states that cyber issues are not addressed here, as the City has other documents that do so. Regarding electric grids, text was added to Section 10 to discuss Public Safety Power Shutoffs (PSPS), especially as they pertain to wildfire hazards.

Southern California Edison has stated that no PSPS outages have been reported in Santa Monica since at least 2021.

2. What type of mitigation measures have been implemented for Stone Canyon Dam? This content is addressed in Section 8. Additional text was added to the section on potential inundation resulting from catastrophic failure of Stone Canyon Dam to emphasize that the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, the owner and operator of the dam, conducts regular safety inspections and monitoring of the dam and reservoir, and have an Emergency Action Plan that is updated and reviewed regularly.

3. Would the water infrastructure at 26th and Olympic be contaminated if the dam inundation event occurs? Text discussing that the water infrastructure is outside the inundation area was added to Section 8. Text was also added to clarify that the City-owned water infrastructure on Bundy Street (Arcadia reservoir) is also not expected to be impacted by this hypothetical, catastrophic failure inundation event.

4. What are the response procedures for a tsunami? This question was addressed during the presentation, with Ms. Call sharing the process of evacuating coastal areas during a local or teletsunami event. She also stressed the importance of promptly evacuating the coastline after a major earthquake, and that the tsunami mitigation action aims to increase awareness/education for tsunami alert/warning and response.

Section 7 was reviewed in light of this question, but the language addressing response procedures was

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Date Milestone / Activity Summary
deemed to be sufficiently thorough that no additional text was added to that section. Note however that the Action Items in Section 4 include Evacuation and Route Planning for tsunami and other hazards, and a Tsunami Alerting System. The Natural Dune Restoration Expansion action should also reduce the impact of future tsunami on the local coastline. The proposed City Readiness Initiative of Expanding Critical Emergency Management Technologies also aims to improve the City’s responsiveness to tsunamis.

5. Are City departments required to implement the mitigation actions? Is there a penalty for failure to complete the action item? Ms. Call responded that the City is striving to complete the identified mitigation action items in five years. She further indicated that there is no penalty for not completing the action items, and that during the annual plan review, the City can determine if a mitigation action should be eliminated, modified, or extended into the next five years. Text to clarify this was added to Sections 4 and 5.

October 15,
2025
Presentation of the
LHMP to the
Planning
Commission
Lindsay Call (OEM) gave a PowerPoint presentation on the findings of the LHMP to the commissioners.

Questions/comments on the following topics were made after the presentation:
• Statement that poor air quality is also hazardous, including events not caused by wildfire. Ms. Call shared that South Coast Air Quality Management District (AQMD) has information on real-time air quality. She shared that those persons with sensitivity to poor air quality and other groups that are more likely to have health impacts, such as children and older adults, should take actions similar to wildfire events when air quality is poor. She also shared that actions that reduce carbon emissions to mitigate climate change can also reduce air pollution.
• Question about the role of Police in disaster mitigation and response, and the role of building community trust between Police and the public before disasters. Ms. Call shared that Police have specific responsibilities in disaster response, such as implementing evacuation or curfew orders, traffic closures, and maintaining security and order. Other organizations like the American Red Cross generally have community-facing roles in disaster recovery, such as disaster shelter operations and recovery casework.
• Advocated that multi-modal evacuation should be incorporated into disaster planning. Ms. Call shared that multi-modal evacuations are specifically noted in the Evacuation Plan mitigation action item.

Persons with “access and functional needs” includes persons with limited access to transportation. Ms.

Call shared that during the Palisades Fire, the City facilitated evacuation transportation by Big Blue Bus of persons to/from the American Red Cross shelter, even facilitating a pick-up at a specific facility. • Shared concern about staff capacity and funding. Ms. Call explained that mitigation action items included are meant to be realistic given current staffing and budgetary conditions. Emphasized the importance of incorporating mitigation and resilience-building into all programs and incorporating the practice into City staff culture, similar to sustainability. • Asked about the importance of family/child disaster education. Ms. Call shared family preparedness education is critical. She shared that hazard education for children often educates an entire family. She shared the example of SMMUSD Grant Elementary’s Project-Based Learning curriculum where elementary school students learn about natural hazards and create a project to mitigate the disaster

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hazard. During this project, children learn directly from staff in the Santa Monica Office of Emergency Management. During the course of the project, parents are often learning about hazards concurrently and OEM promotes household preparedness.
• Stressed importance of considering social vulnerability in response. Ms. Call agreed with this and shared that social vulnerability maps are incorporated into the plan. She stressed that mitigation action items, such as the Evacuation Plan and Inclusive Emergency Communications actions, will also address concerns related to disaster vulnerability and equity.

None of the oral comments received were deemed to require changes to the text. One of the commissioners did provide some editorial comments to the City history portion of Section 2. The text in Section 2 was modified to address the comments received.

October 21,
2025
Presentation of the
LHMP to the
Commission on
Sustainability,
Environmental
Justice and the
Environment
Lindsay Call (OEM) gave a PowerPoint presentation on the findings of the LHMP to the commissioners.

Questions/comments on the following topics were made after the presentation:
• Recommendation to include personal disaster preparedness information in hazard outreach information, especially preparedness considerations for persons living in apartments or condos that have less storage capacity. Ms. Call shared that preparedness information would be included in future publications/websites focused on hazard education. She also shared the importance of having critical supplies for at least 3 days, including water, personal medications, and any specific household needs.

She discussed the shared preparedness strategy of working with your neighbors (apartment/condo neighbors or blocks) to have a preparedness plan for the community, similar to the Map Your Neighborhood program, developed by LuAn K. Johnson, PhD, Washington State Emergency Management.
• Recommendation for City to record oral history of Northridge Earthquake, with an emphasis on interviewing the City’s Mayor and City Manager at that time, during the 1994 event. • General skepticism about data from HazUS risk assessment. Ms. Call shared that these numbers are used for general planning purposes and are helpful when prioritizing hazards for planning purposes and creating realistic scenarios during staff disaster drills. • Concern about the time it takes for Southern California Edison to respond to calls about arcing wires during a widespread disaster event, such as January 2025 windstorm/wildfires. Ms. Call stressed that time-sensitive concerns such as arcing wires can also be reported to Santa Monica Public Safety Dispatch by phone at 310-458-8660 or by calling/texting 911 so that it may also be investigated by Santa Monica Fire. She shared that because dispatch is within OEM, incident information is regularly shared between Public Safety Communications and Emergency Operations Center (EOC) staff. EOC personnel can also relay local concerns to Southern California Edison’s government liaisons to develop response strategies needed. During disasters, EOC staff may also utilize 311 to collect disaster information, distribute electronic surveys to collect public information on damage or other topics, or set-up a Disaster Hotline. The COVID-19 Disaster Hotline established in 2020 to answer public questions transitioned into the general 311 system in 2021.

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Date Milestone / Activity Summary
November 4,
2025
Friends of Sunset Park
Neighborhood
Organization
Meeting
Lindsay Call (OEM) presented general information about the City’s Office of Emergency Management. The following questions/comments about the Local Hazard Mitigation Plan were discussed:
• Concern with LHMP survey and lack of opportunity to provide general feedback that was not related to a specific section of the plan. During the meeting, Ms. Call shared that the survey was designed by OEM staff and that contact information for the division was available on the City’s website. After the meeting, it was confirmed that the survey did have a general comments section. • Concern that the City’s adopted Safety Element did not meet evacuation assessment requirements as required in AB 747 (2019). Ms. Call shared that the Safety Element was completed by the Community Development Department. To create the 2025 Safety Element’s evacuation maps, a multi-departmental team met to assess and determine the evacuation routes. She shared that the Safety Element also includes roads with one egress route. These areas were specifically discussed during the multi-departmental planning meetings. Ms. Call also shared that the LHMP builds upon the Safety Element and has identified “Evacuation Planning” as a mitigation action in the plan so that additional evaluation may occur.

Resident expressed the need to conduct a more detailed assessment to determine maximum vehicular evacuation capacity and to evaluate future construction development. o Based on the discussion during the meeting, Ms. Call discussed with the City’s Department of Transportation (SaMoDOT) if the City utilizes software that could assess vehicular capacity.

SaMoDOT shared they did not have the technology currently available but would review options to assist with future evacuation planning. SaMoDOT and OEM staff agreed to amend the wording of the “Evacuation Planning” mitigation action to include that the City would “assess Santa Monica’s transportation network” and that a citywide evacuation plan would “meet anticipated demand during emergency events.” These changes were made to Section 4. • Ms. Call was asked if the Santa Monica-Malibu Unified School District asked to participate in a multijurisdictional hazard mitigation plan. Ms. Call shared that while it had generally been mentioned in the past, there was no specific request and no funding to support technical hazard evaluation was offered.

She shared that both SMMUSD and SMC were strong supporters of the City’s planning efforts and participated regularly in planning meetings. Ms. Call said that the City’s Local Hazard Mitigation Plan could be utilized by SMMUSD and SMC for research to complete their own plans and for disaster planning.

November 18,
2025
City Council meeting
to adopt LHMP

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Handout Materials, Flyers and PowerPoint Presentations for Kick-Off Meeting, Advisory Committee Meetings,
Community Workshops and Community Survey

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City of Santa Monica, California
January 23, 2024 Resilience Planning and Advisory Committees Workshop Presentation 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 44

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City of Santa Monica, California
January 23, 2024 Resilience Planning and Advisory Committees Workshop Presentation 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 45

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City of Santa Monica, California
January 23, 2024 Resilience Planning and Advisory Committees Workshop Presentation 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 46

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City of Santa Monica, California
January 23, 2024 Resilience Planning and Advisory Committees Workshop Presentation 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 47

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City of Santa Monica, California
January 23, 2024 Resilience Planning and Advisory Committees Workshop Presentation 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 48

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Packet Pg. 1258 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 3: Appendices [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Local Hazards Mitigation Plan Appendix B
City of Santa Monica, California
Flyers for Community Survey and Community Workshops
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 49

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Packet Pg. 1259 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 3: Appendices [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazards Mitigation Plan Appendix B
City of Santa Monica, California
Flyers for Community Survey and Community Workshops
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 50

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 51

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 52

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April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 53

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 54

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 55

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 56

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 57

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 58

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 59

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 60

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April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 61

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 62

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City of Santa Monica, California
April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 63

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April 30, 2024 Public Workshop Presentation (Spanish Version) 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 64

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City of Santa Monica, California
May 15, 2024 Resilience and Advisory Committees Workshop 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 65

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City of Santa Monica, California
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City of Santa Monica, California
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City of Santa Monica, California
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City of Santa Monica, California
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City of Santa Monica, California
May 15, 2024 Resilience and Advisory Committees Workshop 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 76

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City of Santa Monica, California
May 15, 2024 Resilience and Advisory Committees Workshop 2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 77

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City of Santa Monica, California
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City of Santa Monica, California
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Packet Pg. 1289 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 3: Appendices [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazards Mitigation Plan Appendix B
City of Santa Monica, California
August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 80

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City of Santa Monica, California
August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 81

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August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 82

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City of Santa Monica, California
August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
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City of Santa Monica, California
August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
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August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
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August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
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August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
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August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
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August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
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August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
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August 27, 2024 Department Heads Meeting
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City of Santa Monica, California
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 93
Response to Comments on the
Public Draft of Local Hazard Mitigation Plan
Made Available August – September 2025

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Packet Pg. 1303 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 3: Appendices [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazards Mitigation Plan Appendix B
City of Santa Monica, California
Response to Comments on Public Draft of LHMP
Responses in Red
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 94
Section 1: Introduction, pages 1-1 to 1-19
1st Comment:

Section 1 provides a comprehensive foundation for Santa Monica's hazard mitigation planning, effectively establishing the economic and regulatory context for the city's vulnerability assessment. The document demonstrates strong technical competency in synthesizing federal requirements with local conditions.

Areas for Enhancement:

Historical Perspective Balance: While the section acknowledges that indigenous peoples and early settlers faced similar hazards, it could benefit from more substantive engagement with traditional ecological knowledge and indigenous hazard management practices. These knowledge systems, developed over millennia of local environmental interaction, could offer valuable insights for contemporary resilience strategies that complement Western scientific approaches.

Indigenous approaches to managing forests that can and are being applied today to reduce wildfire hazards are discussed in Section 10. Most of the other hazards covered in the Local Hazard Mitigation Plan would not greatly benefit from a discussion of indigenous hazard management practices because today’s built environment is significantly different. Thus, earthquakes in the past century have been far more destructive than they were hundreds to thousands of years ago because it is the collapse of heavy masonry structures that kills and injures people and results in significant property (and economic) losses. Earthquakes in the past 50 years have shown that the implementation of earthquake-resistant building codes do reduce this hazard. As the older building stock is retrofitted or replaced, the impact of this hazard will be reduced. This is also the case for landslides, coastal floods and tsunamis. Specifically, science-based early recognition and tracking of atmospheric rivers, tsunamis, and extreme weather events, and the engineering repair of unstable slopes are increasingly helping to reduce the impact of these hazards.

Early indigenous coastal settlers experienced over the course of millennia, between about 16,000 and 3,000 years ago, nearly 400 feet in sea-level rise, which undoubtedly forced coastal populations, over the course of dozens to hundreds of generations, to pick up their encampments and move increasingly inland. Sea-level rise over the next century is anticipated to be in the order of inches rather than tens to hundreds of feet as there is not enough water locked up in glaciers to raise sea level as much as it did in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. Nevertheless, in some coastal areas around the world, it is already becoming evident that a gradual retreat and building farther inland, is the most-effective longterm mitigation action.

The hazards associated with the use and transport of hazardous materials and the past and present use of the Santa Monica Airport are modern concerns that first developed in the 20th century and have no equivalent in pre-Columbian times.

Temporal Risk Assessment: The dramatic influence of the 2025 Palisades Fire on planning priorities illustrates how recent events could significantly shape risk perception and resource allocation. While this responsiveness demonstrates adaptive capacity, the planning process might benefit from explicitly

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Packet Pg. 1304 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 3: Appendices [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazards Mitigation Plan Appendix B
City of Santa Monica, California
Response to Comments on Public Draft of LHMP
Responses in Red
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 95
examining whether current priorities reflect a balanced assessment of long-term risk patterns versus immediate concerns. This could help ensure that less visible but persistent vulnerabilities receive adequate attention alongside headline-generating events.

This was certainly considered throughout the document, and in the identification of the action items that the City has identified for implementation over the course of the next five years. For example, the possibility of a locally generated tsunami impacting the Santa Monica coastline is being considered and acknowledged as a high-risk hazard although the probability of such an event occurring in the nearfuture is low to very low. Alternatively, extreme weather hazards, including Santa Ana winds, extreme heat and drought, are likely to become increasingly common and persistent. The action items identified address both these high-risk but low-probability, and relatively low-risk but high-probability events.

Community Knowledge Integration: The plan's strong emphasis on institutional expertise and technical analysis creates opportunities to more systematically incorporate community-based knowledge about local vulnerabilities and adaptive strategies. Residents often possess nuanced understanding of neighborhood-specific risks and informal resilience networks that formal assessments may overlook.

Expanding pathways for this knowledge to inform planning could enhance both the accuracy of risk assessments and the effectiveness of mitigation strategies.

This comment is acknowledged. Preparation of the plan included several opportunities for public involvement, such as surveys, presentations to local neighborhood groups in English, Spanish, and virtually, outreach to neighborhood organizations about the survey, presentations, and public comment period, and posting presentation materials and updates online. These efforts are summarized in Appendix B. However, public involvement in these kinds of projects can always be expanded. In addition, future grant-funded work is planned to create hazard education materials for the general public. The City is committed to continue involving the public and educating residents on both the hazards that the city is susceptible to, and the mitigation actions that residents and businesses can implement to reduce their risk from these hazards. This is reflected in several of the action items discussed in Section 4, including, but not limited, to those under the banner of Education and Awareness Programs.

The section successfully establishes the urgency and scope of hazard mitigation while positioning Santa Monica's efforts within broader regulatory frameworks. These observations aim to strengthen an already solid foundation for community resilience planning. 2nd Comment:

Emergency evacuation and transport of critical resources needs more discussion. How will transport and disaster response be handled if key infrastructure is disabled during a disaster - roads, communications, hospitals, police and fire.

Local Hazard Mitigation Plans (LHMPs) are not designed to identify specific emergency evacuation procedures and tactics, as the ultimate goal of LHMPs is to mitigate hazards. However, the City has several complementary documents that identify how these critical actions will be implemented in the event of a disaster. Specifically, emergency evacuation of critical facilities is covered in the City’s MultiHazard Functional Emergency Plan, which briefly covers major disasters, including earthquake, hazardous materials incident, severe storms/flooding, reservoir/dam flooding, major air crash, civil unrest, terrorism, tsunami, fire, landslides, and windstorms. Moreover, all City-owned facilities are

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Packet Pg. 1305 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 3: Appendices [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazards Mitigation Plan Appendix B
City of Santa Monica, California
Response to Comments on Public Draft of LHMP
Responses in Red
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 96
required, and thus have, evacuation plans that address how they will respond to specific disasters.

These documents are referred to as City Facility Emergency Action Plans. Finally, emergency response departments also have a Department-Specific Response Procedures Manual (or Protocol, or Playbook, as they are sometimes called). Thus, for example, the Santa Monica Fire Department (SMFD) has a manual for how to respond to an earthquake, including evacuation and transport procedures; that manual is referred to as the SMFD Earthquake Protocol. Evacuation plans and potential shelter locations for a variety of hazards are also identified in the Safety Element and Chapter 8 of the Technical Background Report to Santa Monica’s Safety Element of the General Plan. That document can be accessed here.

Section 2: Community Profile, pages 2-1 to 2-20
Comment:

Section 2 provides valuable demographic and geographic context that effectively establishes Santa Monica's vulnerability profile. The comprehensive data analysis creates a solid foundation for understanding community exposure to various hazards.

Areas for Enhancement:

Historical Narrative Balance: The treatment of community history could benefit from deeper engagement with displacement impacts and ongoing legacy effects. While the section notes that freeway construction affected African American communities in Belmar Triangle and Pico neighborhoods, expanding this analysis to examine how historical planning decisions continue to influence current vulnerability patterns could strengthen the equity lens. Understanding these connections may reveal opportunities for reparative approaches in resilience planning.

This was briefly addressed in several of the hazard sections, where appropriate, and when there is a reason to believe that historical, or even current, planning decisions may result in patterns that would impact certain vulnerable populations more than others. Thus, for example, the Fire Hazards section discusses potential structure fire issues associated with increasing age of the structure, or the multipurpose use of a structure. The Airport Hazards section discusses the potential impacts that noise may have on adjacent residential neighborhoods. In many areas in the Los Angeles region, but not in Santa Monica, as there are no floodways in the city, it has been recognized that a higher percentage of lowincome residents live in the floodplain and thus have a higher risk of being impacted by floods. These concerns could certainly be evaluated further either in future versions of this LHMP, or perhaps more appropriately, in a companion document that refers back to the mappable hazards identified in this LHMP and then correlate that information to the historical background of the various areas in the city.

Socioeconomic Context Integration: The document presents housing costs and demographic characteristics as demographic facts rather than examining how these conditions create differential vulnerability. For instance, the 72.1% rental rate and $1.5 million median home value could be analyzed in terms of how housing insecurity affects disaster preparedness and recovery capacity. This perspective might highlight targeted interventions for renters and cost-burdened households.

Some of these concerns are addressed in specific hazard sections, such as in the Fire Hazards section.

Appendix B - Santa Monica Vulnerability Assessment for the Safety Element, the companion document

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City of Santa Monica, California
Response to Comments on Public Draft of LHMP
Responses in Red
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 97
to this LHMP, includes a more in-depth analysis of these concerns. The Vulnerability Assessment can be found at this link.

Community Asset Recognition: While the section thoroughly documents institutional resources, it could be enhanced by acknowledging informal community networks, cultural organizations, and resident-led initiatives that contribute to neighborhood resilience. These social assets often prove crucial during disasters but may not appear in conventional demographic datasets.

Community networks and organizations undoubtedly build resilience before, during, and after a disaster. They often play an integral role in disaster recovery efforts. After a disaster event, it is common for new organizations to arise to advocate for community needs. The LHMP identifies institutions and services with critical disaster response and mitigation responsibilities. City emergency planners strive to maintain connections to community-based groups through disaster hazard and preparedness education and through programs like the Emergency Network Los Angeles, a network of non-profit, community and faith-based organizations working to improve community welfare and disaster response. During disaster, ENLA and other local community groups are connected to the City’s Emergency Operations Center through a Non-Profit/CBO Liaison Officer position to leverage their important role and identify community concerns.

The section successfully establishes the demographic foundation for hazard analysis while providing important context about vulnerable populations. These suggestions aim to deepen the analysis of how social and historical factors intersect with physical hazards to create differential risk patterns across the community.

Section 3: Risk Assessment, pages 3-1 to 3-16
1st Comment:

Section 3 demonstrates sophisticated technical methodology for hazard identification and vulnerability assessment. The systematic approach using HazUS modeling and stakeholder input creates a solid analytical foundation for prioritizing mitigation efforts.

Areas for Enhancement:

Risk Assessment Framework Limitations: The heavy reliance on quantifiable, mappable hazards may inadvertently undervalue social vulnerabilities that resist easy modeling. While HazUS provides valuable loss estimates for earthquakes and tsunamis, the framework's emphasis on structural damage and economic costs could overshadow community resilience factors like social cohesion, informal support networks, and cultural assets that significantly influence actual disaster outcomes.

There is no doubt that the community resilience factors identified by the commenter can influence disaster outcomes, likely for the better, but they are difficult to quantify, and like the commenter says, “resist easy modeling.” The document needs to be approved by FEMA in order for the city to be eligible for disaster mitigation funds from the federal government. The City used HazUS, a software created for and supported by FEMA, to assess the potential risk to the City from earthquakes, tsunami and floods.

Since other communities also use HazUS for their risk assessments, this promotes consistency and increases the City’s likelihood that the plan will be approved. Moreover, the social and cultural assets

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Packet Pg. 1307 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 3: Appendices [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazards Mitigation Plan Appendix B
City of Santa Monica, California
Response to Comments on Public Draft of LHMP
Responses in Red
2025 Public Participation Process Page B - 98
that the commenter has identified are not expected to reduce the damage to structures and infrastructure, and thus the estimated counts of injuries and fatalities. The estimates provided by HazUS regarding the number of people that will require shelter following a disaster, on the other hand, seem low given the anticipated damage to structures, and thus appear to already reflect the strength of the social networks in the community that the commenter has mentioned. While local emergency managers use this assessment as a baseline for disaster planning, disaster response tactics are implemented based on real-time damage assessment and current needs of the community.

Community Knowledge Integration: The Resilience Planning Committee's stakeholder-driven hazard ranking process, while valuable, primarily reflects institutional perspectives. Expanding this assessment to systematically incorporate resident-identified vulnerabilities and community-based risk knowledge could reveal important blind spots in the technical analysis. Local residents often possess nuanced understanding of neighborhood-specific risks that formal assessments may miss.

Although the ranking process was conducted by the RPC members, the individuals in the committee reviewed and considered the vulnerabilities and concerns identified by the residents that responded to the online survey, in addition to the issues that they see every day in their individual lines of work at the City. Thus, the prioritization was not conducted in a vacuum. This is evident in the action items identified, with many of them addressing community- and neighborhood-specific concerns.

Critical Infrastructure Perspective: The comprehensive critical facilities analysis focuses appropriately on government buildings, utilities, and institutional assets. However, broadening this definition to include community-identified critical resources—such as local businesses that serve as informal gathering spaces, culturally significant sites, or resident-led support networks—could provide a more complete picture of what communities actually depend on during crises.

The Plan identifies those areas at risk of being impacted by specific, mappable hazards, such as fault rupture, coastal flooding, and inundation due to dam failure, and discusses the types of construction that are most susceptible to structural damage. These data are meant to allow residents, businesses and other organizations to assess their individual risk and hopefully take appropriate mitigative actions.

The City has identified the critical facilities and institutional assets that may potentially be at risk from the hazards identified, as those are the structures and infrastructure that the City is responsible for and should schedule for mitigation as appropriate. An effort was made to identify critical, essential, and important structures in the city that if damaged would have a significant impact on the population, such as the hospitals, libraries and community centers that could serve as shelters, information hubs or points of contact for displaced family members. Future updates of the Plan could identify additional essential community-based resources if that information is provided to the City. The City maintains a list of government, business, and non-profit assets that align with FEMA’s Critical Lifelines categories, a planning tool to stabilize critical community services post-disaster.

Equity in Risk Analysis: While the document acknowledges vulnerable populations, the analytical framework could more explicitly examine how social, economic, and political factors create differential vulnerability within the same geographic hazard zones. This perspective might reveal targeted interventions that address both physical hazards and underlying social determinants of disaster impact.

The analytical tools currently at our disposal are not designed to closely look at the social, economic and political factors that can create differential vulnerabilities. Building-by-building data addressing the age,

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Packet Pg. 1308 Attachment: 2025 SM LHMP Volume 3: Appendices [Revision 1] (7378 : Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Update) Local Hazards Mitigation Plan Appendix B
City of Santa Monica, California
Response to Comments on Public Draft of LHMP
Responses in Red
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type of construction, and potentially socio-economic status of its residents could potentially be built into the HazUS analyses, but that would be a very time-consuming and expensive endeavor, and it is not clear that the results would merit the extra effort. As part of the Safety Element, the City did conduct a qualitative assessment of the vulnerabilities anticipated at the census-tract level, with the results of that assessment summarized in Appendix A of the Safety Element. Some sections of the LHMP, including the Fire and Airport Hazards sections, also refer to identified vulnerabilities with an emphasis on age of the residents, limited mobility, car ownership and other criteria.

When creating disaster plans, the City utilizes multiple resources to inform planning efforts. For example, the City recently approved the Aging and Disability Action Plan. This plan includes a community needs assessment that provides in-depth information on livability, social participation, housing, and emergency preparedness considerations among persons who are more vulnerable to the impacts of disasters.

The section provides a thorough technical foundation while creating opportunities to deepen community-centered approaches to risk assessment.
2nd Comment:

Emergency evacuation and transport of critical resources needs more discussion. How will transport and disaster response be handled if key infrastructure is disabled during a disaster - roads, communications, hospitals, police and fire.

Emergency evacuation of critical resources is addressed in a variety of emergency response plans and annexes that the City and specific departments within the City have previously prepared and update on a regular basis. Response actions are covered in the City’s Multi-Hazard Functional Emergency Plan, various City Facility Emergency Action Plans, Department-Specific Response Procedures, and other location-specific or disaster-specific plans such as the Pier Emergency Plan, the Tsunami Playbook, Brush Fire Evacuation Plan, and the Civil Unrest Plan, to name a few. Section 4 of the LHMP demonstrates City’s staff commitment to expand evacuation planning based on the findings of the Safety Element and LHMP and to ensure evacuation planning addresses those with access and functional needs who may face barriers when evacuating during a disaster event.

Section 4: Goals & Mitigation Actions, pages 4-1 to 4-17 1st Comment:

Section 4 demonstrates systematic prioritization methodology and clear implementation frameworks for addressing identified hazards. The STAPLEE-based evaluation process and collaborative action development through the Resilience Planning Committee creates transparency in decision-making.

Areas for Enhancement:

Community-Centered Prioritization: While the Resilience Planning Committee process ensures technical expertise, the prioritization methodology may inadvertently favor institutional perspectives over community-identified needs. The action items tend toward infrastructure upgrades and technological solutions that serve city operations effectively, but expanding the decision-making

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process to meaningfully weight resident priorities could reveal different intervention strategies that address grassroots resilience needs.

The Action Items identified in Section 4 include a variety of approaches, with many aimed specifically at community-identified needs. As mentioned previously, RPC members were particularly mindful of resident-identified requests and priorities for consideration as action items in the LHMP.

Implementation Equity: The selected actions appropriately focus on critical infrastructure and emergency response capabilities. However, the framework could benefit from explicitly examining how proposed interventions will affect different populations. For instance, while backup utilities and alert systems are valuable, ensuring these improvements reach renters, low-income households, and linguistically diverse communities may require targeted implementation approaches not fully captured in current action descriptions.

Many of the action items chosen for implementation were specifically selected to prioritize vulnerable populations, with City staff committed to ensuring these goals are indeed satisfied during the implementation process. Action items specifically addressing renters, low-income households and linguistically diverse communities include (1) Evacuation and Route Planning, (2) Resilient City Facility Design Standards, (3) Back up Utilities, (4) Food Resilience Through Community Gardening, (5) Inclusive Emergency Communications, and (6) Expand Critical Emergency Management Technologies.

Resource Allocation Balance: The aggressive 2-5 year timeline for most actions reflects strong political commitment to hazard mitigation. However, the acknowledged funding constraints combined with ambitious schedules may create pressure to prioritize quick wins over transformative but complex interventions that address underlying social vulnerabilities. Building in flexibility for longer-term, community-building approaches alongside immediate infrastructure needs could strengthen overall resilience.

This should have been made clearer in the document. The text in Section 4, Timeline, has been modified to address this concern in more detail.

Prevention vs. Response Focus: The action portfolio appropriately emphasizes emergency preparedness and response capacity. Complementing these efforts with actions that address root causes of differential vulnerability—such as housing stability, economic resilience, or community network strengthening—could enhance the plan's effectiveness for populations who face the greatest disaster impacts.

The Local Hazard Mitigation Plan is not meant to be a stand-alone plan. Other city plans, especially those maintained by the Housing and Human Services Department, address programs that strengthen the City’s social services safety net. The City’s Youth Wellbeing Report Card, Homelessness and Strategic Plan, Santa Monica Housing Authority Public Housing Agency Plan, and Aging and Disability Plan address differential vulnerabilities and promote programs and policy to reduce underlying inequity and societal conditions. Santa Monica works to have cross-departmental involvement on all planning efforts, including the LHMP, to ensure these plans align with each other.

The section provides a solid implementation framework while creating opportunities to deepen community-centered approaches to resilience building.

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2nd Comment:

What mitigation if the 10 and 405 freeways knocked out? How will extra fire-fighting resources be rapidly brought in and supplied for the next fire in the Santa Monica Mountains or city of Santa Monica?
As mentioned above and in the Executive Summary of the LHMP, this document is not designed to address evacuation and emergency response procedures. However, the City and individual departments and facilities within the City all have emergency response plans that address a series of potential disasters, including emergency response to different sectors of the city if the freeway bridges collapse, and the ramping up of fire-fighting resources if needed to address a potential wildfire at or near the city’s northern boundary. Some of these existing documents have been addressed in previous responses above. Section 4 of the LHMP demonstrates City’s staff commitment to expand evacuation planning based on the findings of the Safety Element and LHMP and to ensure evacuation planning addresses those with access and functional needs who may face barriers when evacuating during a disaster event.

Section 5: Plan Maintenance, pages 5-1 to 5-12
Comment:

Areas for Enhancement:

Decision-Making Structure: The governance framework appropriately ensures technical expertise through the Resilience Planning Committee and Advisory Committee structure. However, the concentration of decision-making authority within city departments and institutional partners may limit genuine community input on implementation priorities. While public comment opportunities exist, expanding pathways for residents to influence actual resource allocation and project selection could strengthen democratic accountability in resilience planning.

Implementation Success Metrics: The focus on infrastructure achievements and grant acquisition effectively demonstrates institutional progress. However, the success narrative could benefit from examining whether these technical improvements meaningfully reduce vulnerability for the most at-risk populations. For instance, while seismic retrofit completion rates indicate regulatory compliance, assessing whether these improvements actually enhance disaster outcomes for renters, low-income households, or linguistically isolated residents would provide a more complete effectiveness picture.

Text to address some of these concerns has been added to Section 5.

Maintenance Sustainability: The impressive array of technological improvements—emergency communications systems, GIS tools, and backup power—creates valuable response capabilities.

However, the apparent reliance on external grant funding for major improvements may indicate challenges with ongoing local investment in resilience. Building sustainable local funding mechanisms for maintenance and community-based resilience initiatives could reduce dependency on competitive federal programs.

The City of Santa Monica has worked to embed disaster preparedness and mitigation priorities into existing department work plans and priorities. Section 5 identifies that the multi-departmental/ stakeholder Resilience Planning Committee will work with CIty departments to integrate mitigation Action Items into Capital Improvement Plan recommendations.

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Community Capacity Building: While the plan documents substantial infrastructure investments, complementing these with systematic community capacity-building initiatives could enhance overall resilience effectiveness, particularly for populations who may not directly benefit from technical improvements.

The Action Items in the Plan include several that are not geared to infrastructure investments, but rather aim to strengthen community resilience through education and outreach, including information that would allow individuals, families, and businesses to better prepare for disasters and their aftermath.

The section demonstrates sophisticated institutional planning while creating opportunities to deepen community-centered maintenance approaches.

Section 6: Earthquakes, pages 6-1 to 6-86
Comment:

How will rapid emergency transportation be accommodated if roads and the 10, 405 freeways are disabled?
As mentioned above and in the Executive Summary of the LHMP, this document is not designed to address evacuation and emergency response procedures. However, the City and individual departments and facilities within the City all have emergency response plans that address a series of potential disasters, including emergency response to different sectors of the city if the freeway bridges collapse.

Section 4 of the LHMP demonstrates City’s staff commitment to expand evacuation planning based on the findings of the Safety Element and LHMP and to ensure evacuation planning addresses those with access and functional needs who may face barriers when evacuating during a disaster event.

Section 7: Tsunamis, pages 7-1 to 7-30
Comment:

How will rapid emergency transportation be accommodated if tsunami floods coastal Santa Monica? As mentioned above and in the Executive Summary of the LHMP, this document is not designed to address evacuation and emergency response procedures. Emergency evacuation is addressed in a variety of emergency response plans and annexes that the City and specific departments within the City have previously prepared and update on a regular basis. Response actions are covered in the City’s Multi-Hazard Functional Emergency Plan, various City Facility Emergency Action Plans, DepartmentSpecific Response Procedures, and other location-specific or disaster-specific plans such as the Pier Emergency Plan and the Tsunami Playbook.

Section 8: Flood Hazards (Coastal, Dam Inundation), pages 8-1 to 8-54 Comment:

How will rapid emergency transportation be accommodated if tsunami floods coastal Santa Monica? The emergency response and evacuation in the event of a tsunami is addressed in the City’s Tsunami Playbook, a specific guidance that spells out when to issue alerts and warnings, and evacuation routes

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for tsunami response are also identified in the City’s Seismic Safety Element. The Tsunami Playbook details different evacuation strategies for local and long-distance tsunamis. Section 4 of the LHMP demonstrates City’s staff commitment to expand evacuation planning based on the findings of the Safety Element and LHMP. Tsunami evacuation planning is specifically identified as an Action Item in Section 4.

Section 13: Airport Hazards, pages 13-1 to 13-40
Comment:

How will the airport be used for disaster response?
While the City of Santa Monica has identified potential uses for the airport as it is operating now, the actual utilization will be determined post-disaster based on community need and damage sustained to the airport runway, adjacent structures, and nearby park facilities.

The City of Santa Monica is currently compiling feedback on the future use of the airport grounds.

Public safety and emergency management personnel are heavily involved in future use planning to integrate disaster mitigation, preparedness, and response activities.

Appendix B: Public Participation Process and Meeting Materials B-1 to B-89 Comment:

Were the Santa Monica neighborhood groups consulted?
Yes. Presentations were made to individual neighborhood groups, as identified on Table B-2 in Appendix B, for the purposes of educating local residents on the hazards that the City in general, and their neighborhood in particular, are most susceptible to, and to obtain feedback from residents on their hazard priorities and specific needs for hazard preparedness and response. Local presentations were made as part of the process, and an online presentation still available on YouTube also provides information on the process and findings of this effort.

Appendix C: Economic Analysis of Hazard Mitigation Projects, pages C-1 to C-8 Comment:

What is the forecast of economic impact if a major earthquake, tsunami, fire, civil unrest hits Santa Monica?
Appendix C is designed to provide guidance for future acquisition of funding in the support of mitigation actions for specific hazards. The economic impact of individual hazards, such as a major earthquake, tsunami, flood, or fire, is presented in each of the hazard sections in Volume II of the report. Refer to the HazUS analyses in the earthquake, tsunami, and flooding sections. Economic assessments using Crisis Track are also presented in the flooding and fire hazards sections. The economic impact of other potential disasters is also qualitatively addressed using information based on historical events.

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General Feedback/Questions2
Comment:

How will the airport and control tower be used for disaster response? The future use of the airport is still being discussed and has not been determined yet. As a result, discussing the use of the airport and control tower for disaster response is premature. However, public safety and emergency management personnel are heavily involved in future use planning to integrate disaster mitigation, preparedness, and response activities.

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APPENDIX C: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF

HAZARD MITIGATION PROJECTS

INTRODUCTION
Benefit-cost analysis (BCA) is a key mechanism used by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the State Office of Emergency Services (Cal OES), and other Federal and State agencies in evaluating hazard mitigation projects, and is required by the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, Public Law 93-288, as amended.

This appendix outlines several approaches for conducting economic analyses of hazard mitigation projects. It describes the importance of implementing mitigation activities, different approaches to economic analysis of mitigation strategies, and methods to calculate costs and benefits associated with mitigation strategies. Information in this section is derived in part from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Cost-Benefit Analysis webpage. There are several useful online publications that describe the process of conducting a BCA, including equations, developed by and for FEMA. Links to several of these publications or webpages are listed throughout this section, or at the end, in the Resources section. FEMA has also developed a software package, or toolkit, referred to as the BCA Toolkit, for a variety of natural hazards.

This section is not intended to provide a comprehensive description of BCA, nor is it intended to provide the details of economic analysis methods that can be used to evaluate local projects. It is intended to 1) raise BCA as an important issue, and 2) provide some background on how economic analysis can be used to evaluate mitigation projects.

WHY EVALUATE MITIGATION STRATEGIES?
Mitigation activities (also referred to as mitigation actions or action items) reduce the cost of disasters by minimizing property damage, injuries, and the potential for loss of life. Mitigation activities also reduce emergency response costs, which would otherwise be incurred.

Evaluating hazard mitigation provides decision-makers with an understanding of the potential benefits and costs of an activity, as well as a basis upon which to compare alternative projects.

Evaluating mitigation projects is a complex and difficult undertaking influenced by many variables.

First, natural and human-made disasters affect all segments of the communities they strike, including individuals, businesses, and public services such as fire, police, utilities, and schools. Second, while some of the direct and indirect costs of disaster damages are measurable, some of the costs are nonfinancial and difficult to quantify in dollars. Third, many of the impacts of such events produce “ripple-effects” or “cascading effects” throughout the community, greatly increasing the disaster’s social and economic consequences.

While not easily accomplished, there is value from a public policy perspective in assessing the positive and negative impacts from mitigation activities, and obtaining an instructive benefit-cost comparison. Otherwise, the decision to pursue or not pursue various mitigation options would not be based on an objective understanding of the net benefit or loss associated with these actions.

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WHAT ARE SOME ECONOMIC ANALYSIS APPROACHES FOR MITIGATION STRATEGIES?
The approaches used to identify the costs and benefits associated with hazard mitigation strategies, measures, or projects fall into two general categories: benefit-cost analysis (BCA) and costeffectiveness analysis (CEA). The distinction between the two methods is based on the way in which the relative costs and benefits are measured. Additionally, there are varying approaches to assessing the value of mitigation for public sector and private sector activities.

Benefit-Cost Analysis
Benefit-cost analysis (BCA) is used in natural hazard mitigation to evaluate whether the benefits to life and property protected through mitigation efforts exceed the cost of the mitigation activity.

Conducting BCA for a mitigation activity can assist communities in determining whether a project is worth undertaking now, in order to avoid disaster related damages later. BCA is based on calculating the frequency and severity of a hazard, the avoided future damages, and the risk.

In BCA, all costs and benefits are evaluated in terms of dollars, and a net benefit/cost ratio is computed to determine whether a project should be implemented (i.e., if net benefits exceed net costs, the project is worth pursuing). A project must have a benefit/cost ratio greater than 1.0 in order to be funded.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) evaluates how best to spend a given amount of money to achieve a specific goal. This type of analysis however, does not necessarily measure costs and benefits in terms of dollars. For example, CEA is often used in healthcare to inform decisions regarding the allocation of resources. Determining the economic feasibility of mitigating hazards can also be organized according to the perspective of those with an economic interest in the outcome. Hence, economic analysis approaches are covered for both public and private sectors as follows:
• Investing in Public Sector Mitigation Activities
Evaluating mitigation strategies in the public sector is complicated because it involves estimating all of the economic benefits and costs regardless of who realizes them, which could potentially be a large number of people and economic entities. Furthermore, some benefits cannot be evaluated monetarily, but still affect the public in profound ways. Economists have developed methods to evaluate the economic feasibility of public decisions that involve a diverse set of beneficiaries and non-market benefits.
• Investing in Private Sector Mitigation Activities
Private sector mitigation projects may occur on the basis of one of two approaches: it may be mandated by a regulation or standard, or it may be economically justified on its own merits. A building or landowner, whether a private entity or a public agency, required to conform to a mandated standard may consider the following options:

1. Request cost sharing from public agencies;

2. Dispose of the building or land in question either by sale or demolition;

3. Change the designated use of the building or land and change the hazard mitigation compliance requirement; or

4. Evaluate the most feasible alternatives and initiate the most cost-effective hazard mitigation

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alternative.

The sale of a building or land triggers another set of concerns. For example, real estate disclosure laws may require sellers of real property to disclose known defects and deficiencies in the property, including earthquake weaknesses and hazards to prospective purchasers. Correcting deficiencies can be expensive and time consuming, but their existence can prevent the sale of the building. Conditions of a sale regarding the deficiencies and the price of the building can be negotiated between a buyer and seller.

HOW CAN AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS BE CONDUCTED?
Benefit-cost analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis are important tools in evaluating whether or not to implement a mitigation activity. A framework for evaluating alternative mitigation activities is outlined below:

1. Identify the Alternatives: Alternatives for reducing risk from natural hazards can include structural projects to enhance disaster resistance, education and outreach, and acquisition or demolition of exposed properties, among others. Different mitigation projects can assist in minimizing the risk to natural and/or human-caused hazards, but do so at varying economic costs.

2. Calculate the Costs and Benefits: Choosing economic criteria is essential to systematically calculate the costs and benefits of mitigation projects and select the most appropriate alternative.

Potential economic criteria to evaluate alternatives include:
• Determine the Project Cost. This may include initial project development costs, and repair and operating costs of maintaining projects over time.
• Estimate the Benefits. Projecting the benefits, or cash flow resulting from a project can be difficult. Expected future returns from the mitigation effort depend on the correct specification of the risk and the effectiveness of the project, which may not be well known.

Expected future costs depend on the physical durability and potential economic obsolescence of the investment. This is difficult to project. These considerations also provide guidance in selecting an appropriate salvage value. Future tax structures and rates must be projected. Financing alternatives, such as retained earnings, bond and stock issues, and commercial loans, must be researched.
• Consider Costs and Benefits to Society and the Environment. These are not easily measured, but can be assessed through a variety of economic tools including existence value or contingent value theories. These theories provide quantitative data on the value people attribute to physical or social environments. Even without hard data, however, impacts of Estimating the costs and benefits of a hazard mitigation plan strategy can be a complex process. Employing the services of a specialist can assist in this process.

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structural projects to the physical environment or to society should be considered when implementing mitigation projects.
• Determine the Correct Discount Rate0F
1 . Determination of the discount rate can refer only to the risk-free cost of capital, but it may also include the decision maker’s time preference and also a risk premium. Inflation should also be considered.

3. Analyze and Rank the Alternatives: Once costs and benefits have been quantified, economic analysis tools can be used to rank the alternatives. Two methods for determining the best alternative given varying costs and benefits include net present value and internal rate of return. • Net Present Value. Net present value is the value of the expected future return on an investment minus the value of expected future cost expressed in today’s dollars. If the net present value is greater than the project’s costs, the project may be deemed feasible for implementation.
• Internal Rate of Return. Using the internal rate of return method to evaluate mitigation projects provides the interest rate equivalent to the dollar returns expected from the project.

Once the rate has been calculated, it can be compared to rates earned by investing in alternative projects. Projects may be feasible to implement when the internal rate of return is greater than the total costs of the project.

Once the mitigation projects are ranked based on economic criteria, decision-makers can consider other factors, such as risk, project effectiveness, and economic, environmental, and social returns in choosing the appropriate project for implementation.

HOW ARE THE BENEFITS OF MITIGATION CALCULATED?
Economic Returns of Natural Hazard Mitigation
The estimation of economic returns, which accrue to a building or landowner as a result of natural hazard mitigation, is difficult. Owners evaluating the economic feasibility of mitigation should consider reductions in physical damages and financial losses. A partial list follows:
• Building damages avoided
• Content damages avoided
• Inventory damages avoided
• Rental income losses avoided
• Relocation and disruption expenses avoided
• Proprietor’s income losses avoided
These parameters can be estimated using observed prices, costs, and engineering data. The difficult part is to correctly determine the effectiveness of the hazard mitigation project and the resulting

1 Discount rate, or the cost of capital, refers to the time value of money, essentially recognizing that money today is worth more than the same amount of money in the future. Typically presented as a percentage used to determine the present value of a future cash flow.

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reduction in damages and losses. Equally as difficult is assessing the probability that an event will occur. The damages and losses should only include those that will be borne by the owner. The salvage value of the investment can be important in determining economic feasibility. Salvage value becomes more important as the time horizon of the owner declines. This is important because most businesses depreciate assets over time.

Additional Costs from Natural Hazards
Property owners should also assess changes in a broader set of factors that can change as a result of a large natural disaster. These are usually termed “indirect” effects, but they can have a very direct effect on the economic value of the owner’s building or land. They can be positive or negative, and include changes in the following:
• Commodity and resource prices
• Availability of resource supplies
• Commodity and resource demand changes
• Building and land values
• Capital availability and interest rates
• Availability of labor
• Economic structure
• Infrastructure
• Regional exports and imports
• Local, state, and national regulations and policies
• Insurance availability and rates
Changes in the resources and industries listed above are more difficult to estimate and require models that are structured to estimate total economic impacts. Total economic impacts are the sum of direct and indirect economic impacts. Total economic impact models are usually not combined with economic feasibility models. Many models exist to estimate total economic impacts of changes in an economy.

Decision makers should understand the total economic impacts of natural disasters to calculate the benefits of a mitigation activity. This suggests that understanding the local economy is an important first step in being able to understand the potential impacts of a disaster, and the benefits of mitigation activities.

Additional Considerations
Conducting an economic analysis for potential mitigation activities can assist decision-makers in choosing the most appropriate strategy for their community to reduce risk and prevent loss from natural and human-caused hazards. Economic analysis can also save time and resources from being spent on inappropriate or unfeasible projects. Several resources and models (see list below) are available to help in conducting an economic analysis for natural hazard mitigation activities.

Santa Monica’s budget is largely funded through sales taxes, transient occupancy taxes paid by overnight hotel visitors, and parking revenue; combined, these income sources make up 46% of General Fund revenues, including Capital Improvement Projects. The City is still recovering from a

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tremendous hit to these revenue streams caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The City experienced another dip to these revenue streams during the 2025 Palisades fire, which caused temporary evacuation conditions within the city and challenges related to wildfire debris impacts on local beaches. Economic analysis for hazard mitigation projects within Santa Monica must consider a potential disaster’s impact to tourism, retail and hospitality industries as it could have long-reaching devastating impacts on the City’s finances.

Benefit-cost analysis is complicated, and the numbers may divert attention from other important issues. It is important to consider the qualitative factors of a project associated with mitigation that cannot be evaluated economically. There are alternative approaches to implementing mitigation projects. Many communities are looking towards developing multi-objective projects. With this in mind, opportunity rises to develop strategies that integrate hazard mitigation with projects related to watersheds, environmental planning, community economic development, and small business development, among others. The City of Santa Monica’s recent challenges in tax revenue have left the Capital Improvement Program underfunded, which is the funding source for most City hazard mitigation programs. Incorporating hazard mitigation into community and government capital improvement projects can increase the viability of project implementation. Requiring hazard mitigation of capital improvement projects is a best practice for achieving community resilience and ensuring continued hazard reduction.

SELECTED RESOURCES
Anagnos, T., Comerio, M.C., and Stewart, J.P., 2016, Earthquake loss estimates and policy implications for nonductile concrete buildings in Los Angeles: Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 1951–1973; doi:10.1193/060415EQS088M.

Belleri, A., and Marini, A., 2016, Does seismic risk affect the environmental impact of existing buildings?: Energy Build, Vol. 110 (Jan), pp. 149–158; doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.10.048.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, 1996, Report on Costs and Benefits of Natural Hazard Mitigation, Publication 331; available from https://www.fema.gov/pdf/library/haz_cost.pdf.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2007, Using Benefit-Cost Review in Mitigation Planning:

State and Local Mitigation Planning How-To Guide No. 5, FEMA Publication 386-5, 13p. + appendix; available from
https://iemaohs.illinois.gov/content/dam/soi/en/web/iemaohs/recovery/documents/planfema-htg5.pdf.

Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2020, Protecting Communities and Saving Money: The Case for Adopting Building Codes; available from
https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-11/fema_building-codes-save_brochure.pdf.

Fung, J.F., Cook, D.T., Zhang, Y., Johnson, K.J., and Sattar, S., 2022, Economic considerations for recovery-based design: In Proceedings, 12th National Conference on Earthquake Engineering (NCEE). Oakland, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute.

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Fung, J.F., Sattar, S., Butry, D.T., and McCabe, S.L., 2020, A predictive modeling approach to estimating seismic retrofit costs: Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 579–598; doi:10.1177/8755293019891716.

Hutt, C.M., Vahanvaty, T., and Kourehpaz. P., 2022, An analytical framework to assess earthquakeinduced downtime and model recovery of buildings: Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 1283–1320; doi:10.1177/87552930211060856.

Jiang, W., and Marggraf, R., 2021, The origin of cost-benefit analysis: a comparative view of France and the United States: Cost Effectiveness and Resource Allocation, Vol. 19, Article 74; doi:

10.1186/s12962-021-00330-3.

Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis (JBCA) is the only journal devoted exclusively to benefit-cost analysis. JBCA publishes papers on theory, empirical analyses, case studies, and techniques.

As of 24 October 2024, papers accepted by JBCA are published via an Open Access license.

Lenton, T.M., Xu, C., Abrams, J.F., Ghadiali, A., Loriani, S., Sakschewski, B., Zimm, C., Ebi, K.L., Dunn, R.R., Svenning, J-C, and Scheffer, M., 2023, Quantifying the human cost of global warming: Nature Sustainability, Vol. 6, No. 10, pp. 1237–1247; doi:10.1038/s41893-023- 01132-6.

Multi-Hazard Mitigation Council, 2005, Natural Hazard Mitigation Saves: An Independent Study to Assess the Future Savings from Mitigation Activities, Vol. 1: Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations: National Institute of Building Sciences, Washington D.C., 11p.; can be purchased from
https://store.atcouncil.org/index.php?dispatch=products.view&product_id=235.

National Institute of Building Sciences, 2019, Natural Hazard Mitigation Saves: 2019 Report: Report prepared for the Federal Emergency Management Agency dated 1 December 2019; available from https://nibs.org/projects/natural-hazard-mitigation-saves-2019-report/.

Report presents benefit-cost analysis of natural hazard mitigation for a variety of natural hazards.

Office of Management and Budget, 2023, Memorandum, Guidelines and Discount Rates for BenefitCost Analysis of Federal Programs: Circular No. A-94, 9 Nov. 2023 Revision; available from https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/CircularA-94.pdf.

Rose, A., Porter, K., Dash, N., Bouabid, J., Huyck, C., Whitehead, J., Shaw, D., Eguchi, R., Taylor, C., McLane, T., Tobin, L., Ganderton, P., Godschalk, D., Kiremidjian, A., Tierney, K., and West, C., 2007, Benefit-Cost Analysis of FEMA Hazard Mitigation Grants: Natural Hazards Review, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 97–111.\; available from
https://bechtel.colorado.edu/~porterka/Rose-et-al-2007-NHR-BCA.pdf.

Shreve, C.M., and Kelman, I., 2014, Does Mitigation Save? Reviewing cost-benefit analyses of disaster risk reduction: International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, Vol. 10, Part A, pp. 213-235; doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2014.08.004.

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2025 Economic Analysis Page C-8
Tornaghi, M.L., Loli, A., and Negro, P., 2018, Balanced evaluation of structural and environmental performances in building design: Buildings, Vol. 8, No. 4, 52 p.; doi:10.3390/buildings8040052.

VSP Associates, Inc., 1994, Seismic Rehabilitation of Federal Buildings: A Benefit-Cost Model, Volume 1: Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Publication Number 255; available from https://mitigation.eeri.org/wp-content/uploads/FEMA_255.pdf.

Welsh-Huggins, S.J., and Liel, A.B., 2018, Evaluating multiobjective outcomes for hazard resilience and sustainability from enhanced building seismic design decisions: Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 144, No. 8, Paper 04018108; doi:10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002001.

Whitehead, J.C., and Rose, A.Z., 2009, Estimating environmental benefits of natural hazard mitigation with data transfer: Results from a benefit-cost analysis of Federal Emergency Management Agency hazard mitigation grants: Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol. 14, No. 7, pp. 655-676; doi:10.1007/s11027-009-9189-2; available from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226727251_Estimating_environmental_benefits_ of_natural_hazard_mitigation_with_data_transfer_Results_from_a_benefitcost_analysis_of_Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency_hazard_mitigation_grants.

Zhang, Y., Fung, J.F., Cook, D., Johnson, K.J., and Sattar, S., 2024, Benefit-cost analysis for earthquake-resilient building design and retrofit: State of the art and future research needs:

Natural Hazards Review, Vol. 25, No. 3; doi:10.1061/NHREFO.NHENG-1910; available from https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/NHREFO.NHENG-1910.

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2025 Acronyms Page D - 1
APPENDIX D: ACRONYMS
Federal Acronyms
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials AB Assembly Bill
AIA Airport Influence Area
ARC American Red Cross
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ATC Applied Technology Council
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
AWWA American Water Works Association
BCA Benefit-Cost Analysis
BFE Base Flood Elevation
BLM Bureau of Land Management
BOCA Building Officials and Code Administrators International BRIC Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities
BSSC Building Seismic Safety Council
CDBG Community Development Block Grant
CDC U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act CFR Code of Federal Regulations
COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease 2019
CRS Community Rating System
CWA Clean Water Act
DOE Department of Energy
DOT Department of Transportation
DFE Design Flood Elevation
DR Federal (or Presidential) Major Disaster Declaration EAP Emergency Action Plan
EDA Economic Development Administration
EM Federal (or Presidential) Emergency Declaration
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ER Emergency Relief
EWP Emergency Watershed Protection (NRCS Program)
EPCRA Emergency Planning and Community Right-to Know Act FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAS Federal Aid System
FAY Federal Award Year
FDAA Federal Disaster Assistance Administration
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency
FIA Federal Insurance Administration
FIRM Flood Insurance Rate Map
FIS Flood Insurance Study
FM Federal Fire Management Assistance Declaration
FMA Flood Mitigation Assistance (FEMA Program)
FMAG Fire Management Assistance Grant

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FS Federal Fire Suppression Authorization
GSA General Services Administration
Hazus/HazUS Hazards United States (an earthquake damage assessment prediction tool) HMA Hazard Mitigation Assistance
HMGP Hazard Mitigation Grant Program
HMST Hazard Mitigation Survey Team
HUD U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
IA Individual Assistance
IBC International Building Code
IBHS Institute for Business and Home Safety
ICARP Integrated Climate Adaptation and Resilience Program ICC International Code Council
ICBO International Conference of Building Officials
IHMT Interagency Hazard Mitigation Team
LHMP Local Hazard Mitigation Plan
MHFP Multi-Hazard Functional Plan
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCDC National Climate Data Center
NCEI National Center for Environmental Information (NOAA) NDC Non-Ductile Concrete building (reinforced concrete-frame building) NEHRP National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program
NEMA National Emergency Management Agency
NEMIS National Emergency Management Information System
NESHAP National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants NFDRS National Fire Danger Rating System
NFIP National Flood Insurance Program
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NHMP Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan (also known as "409 Plan") NIBS National Institute of Building Sciences
NIFC National Interagency Fire Center
NIMS National Incident Management System
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NPL National Priorities List
NPS National Park Service
NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service
NSHMP National Seismic Hazard Mapping Project
NSF National Science Foundation
NWS National Weather Service
OCC Operations Coordination Center
OCD Office of Civil Defense
OEP Office of Emergency Planning
PDA Preliminary Damage Assessment
PIO Public Information Office
POST Police Officer Standards and Training
PPA/CA Performance Partnership Agreement/Cooperative Agreement (FEMA) PSA Public Service Announcement
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

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R100 100-year probability teletsunami
R500 500-year probability teletsunami
RFR Request for Reconsideration
RTPA Regional Transportation Planning Agency
SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SB Senate Bill
SBA Small Business Administration
SBCCI Sothern Building Code Congress International
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SEMS Standardized Emergency Management System
SFHA Special Flood Hazard Area
SHMO State Hazard Mitigation Officer
SMF Steel Moment Frame building
SPC National Weather Service Storm Prediction Center
SVI Social Vulnerability Index
TOR Transfer of Development Rights
TRI Toxic Release Inventory
UBC Uniform Building Code
UGB Urban Growth Boundary
URM Unreinforced Masonry
USACE United States Army Corps of Engineers
USBR United States Bureau of Reclamation
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USFA United States Fire Administration
USFS United States Forest Service
USGS United States Geological Survey
WSSPC Western States Seismic Policy Council
California and Local Acronyms
ADDI American Dream Downpayment Initiative
ALUCs Airport Land Use Commissions
ALUCP Airport Land Use Compatibility Plan
APEFZ Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Fault Zone
APEFZA Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Fault Zoning Act
ARP Accidental Risk Prevention
AWTF Advanced Water Treatment Facility
BOF California Board of Forestry and Fire Protection
BSC California Building Standards Commission
BSA California Bureau of State Audits
CAAP Climate Action and Adaption Plan
CAER Community Awareness & Emergency Response
Cal-Adapt State program providing data and tools for climate adaptation, planning, building resiliency and fostering community engagement
CalARP California Accidental Release Prevention
CalBO California Building Officials
CalEPA California Environmental Protection Agency

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2025 Acronyms Page D - 4
CAL FIRE California Department of Forestry and Fire Prevention CalGEM California Geologic Energy Management Division
CALGreen California Green Building Standards Code (Part 11, Title 24 of CCR) Cal OES California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services Cal/OSHA California Occupational Safety and Health Administration CalRecycle California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery CalSTARS California State Accounting Reporting System
Caltrans California Department of Transportation
CARB California Air Resources Board
CBC California Building Code
CBO Community Based Organization
CBSC California Building Standards Commission
CCR California Code of Regulations
CD Civil Defense
CDAA California Disaster Assistance Act
CDBG Community Development Block Grant
CDF California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection CDFW California Department of Fish and Wildlife
CDMG California Division of Mines and Geology (now CGS) CDPH California Department of Public Health
CEA California Earthquake Authority
CEC California Energy Commission
CEPEC California Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council CEQA California Environmental Quality Act
CERS California Environmental Reporting System
CESQG Conditionally Exempt Small Quantity Generator
CESRS California Emergency Services Radio System
CFM Community Fault Model
CFSC California Fire Safe Council
CGS California Geological Survey
CHHS California Health and Human Services Agency
CHIP California Hazardous Identification Program
CHMIRS California Hazardous Materials Incident Reporting System CHP California Highway Patrol
CISN California Integrated Seismic Network
CLETS California Law Enforcement Telecommunications System CNRA California Natural Resources Agency
CSTI California Specialized Training Institute
CUEA California Utilities Emergency Association
CUPA Certified Unified Program Agency
CWA Clean Water Act
DAD Disaster Assistance Division (of the state Office of Emergency Services) DASH Downtown Area Short Hop (mini-bus service in Los Angeles) DFM California Department of Water Resources Division of Floodplain Management DFO Disaster Field Office
DGS California Department of General Services
DHSRHB California Department of Health Services, Radiological Health Branch DIR California Department of Industrial Relations

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DOC California Department of Conservation
DOF California Department of Finance
DOJ California Department of Justice
DPA California Department of Personnel Administration
DPIG Disaster Preparedness Improvement Grant
DR Disaster Response
DSA Division of the State Architect
DSOD California Department of Water Resources Division of Safety of Dams DSR Damage Survey Report
DSW Disaster Service Worker
DTSC California Department of Toxic Substances Control
DWR California Department of Water Resources
EAS Emergency Alerting System
EDIS Emergency Digital Information System
EERI Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
EIR Environmental Impact Report
EMA Emergency Management Assistance
EMI Emergency Management Institute
EMMA Emergency Managers Mutual Aid
EMS Emergency Medical Services
EOC Emergency Operations Center
EOP Emergency Operations Plan
EPEDAT Early Post Earthquake Damage Assessment Tool
EPFT Elysian Park Fold and Thrust belt
EPI Emergency Public Information
EPIC Emergency Public Information Council
ESA California Emergency Services Act
ESC Emergency Services Coordinator
FEAT Governor's Flood Emergency Action Team
FHSZ Fire Hazard Severity Zone
FIR Final Inspection Reports
FIRESCOPE Firefighting Resources of So. Calif Organized for Potential Emergencies FMA Flood Management Assistance
FRAP Fire and Resource Assessment Program
GSP Groundwater Sustainability Plan
HAZMAT Hazardous Materials
HAZMIT Hazardous Mitigation
HAD Housing and Community Development
HEICS Hospital Emergency Incident Command System
HEPG Hospital Emergency Planning Guidance
HIA Hazard Identification and Analysis Unit
HMBP Hazardous Materials Business Plan
HMEP Hazardous Materials Emergency Preparedness
HMGP Hazard Mitigation Grant Program
HOME Home Investment Partnership Program
IDE Initial Damage Estimate
IA Individual Assistance
IFG Individual & Family Grant (program)

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2025 Acronyms Page D - 6
IRG Incident Response Geographic Information System
IPA Information and Public Affairs (of state Office of Emergency Services) IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISZ Inner Safety Zone (airport)
LA Los Angeles
LAC or LACo Los Angeles County
LACCVA Los Angeles County Climate Vulnerability Assessment LAC AHMP County of Los Angeles All-Hazards Mitigation Plan LAX Los Angeles Airport
LCP Local Coastal Program
LADOT City of Los Angeles Department of Transportation
LAMSA Los Angeles Metropolitan Statistical Area
LCP LUP Local Coastal Program Land Use Plan
LEMMA Law Enforcement Master Mutual Aid
LEPC Local Emergency Planning Committee
LHMP Local Hazard Mitigation Plan
LRA Local Responsibility Area
LUST Leaking Underground Storage Tank
MARAC Mutual Aid Regional Advisory Council
METRO Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transit Authority MHID Multi-Hazard Identification
MTA Metropolitan Transportation Authority (also known as LACMTA) MWD Metropolitan Water District
NGO Non-governmental Organization
NIFZ Newport-Inglewood Fault Zone
NOFO Notice of Funding Opportunity
NOI Notice of Interest
NPP Nuclear Power Plant
OA Operational Area
OASIS Operational Area Satellite Information System
OCC Operations Coordination Center
OCD Office of Civil Defense
OEP Office of Emergency Planning
OEHHS Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment
OES California Governor's Office of Emergency Services (also Cal OES) OPC California Ocean Protection Council
OPR California Governor’s Office of Planning and Research OSCF Orphan Site Cleanup Fund
OSFM California Office of the State Marshal
OSHPD California Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development OSPR California Office of Spill Prevention and Response PSHA Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
PTAB Planning and Technological Assistance Branch
PVA Physical Vulnerability Assessment
RA Regional Administrator (OES)
RADEF Radiological Defense (program)
RAMP Regional Assessment of Mitigation Priorities
RAPID Railroad Accident Prevention & Immediate Deployment

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RDO Radiological Defense Officer
RDMHC Regional Disaster Medical Health Coordinator
REOC Regional Emergency Operations Center
REPI Reserve Emergency Public Information
RES Regional Emergency Staff
RIMS Response Information Management System
RMP Risk Management Plan
RPU Radiological Preparedness Unit (OES)
RPZ Runway Protection Zone (airport)
RRT Regional Response Team
RUST Replacement of Underground Storage Tanks
RWQCB Regional Water Quality Control Board
SAM State Administrative Manual
SAVP Safety Assessment Volunteer Program
SCEC Statewide California Earthquake Center (previously Southern California Earthquake Center)
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SM Santa Monica
SMFD Santa Monica Fire Department
SMPD Santa Monica Police Department
SCO California State Controller's Office
SEPIC State Emergency Public Information Committee
SGC California Strategic Growth Council
SHMA Seismic Hazards Mapping Act
SHMO State Hazard Mitigation Officer
SHMP State Hazard Mitigation Plan
SLA State and Local Assistance
SLC California State Lands Commission
SMC Santa Monica College
SMCAAP Santa Monica Climate Action and Adaption Plan (or CAAP) SMGB California State Mining and Geology Board
SMO Santa Monica Airport (also used SMA)
SRA State Responsibility Area
SSC California Seismic Safety Commission
SWEPC Statewide Emergency Planning Committee
SWRCB State Water Resources Control Board
UCBC Uniform Code for Building Conservation
UCERF Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast
UPA Unified Program Account
UC University of California
USC University of Southern California
WDRs Water Discharge Requirements
WC California State Warning Center

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2025 AcronymsPageD- 8
Industry and Other Acronyms
A&W Alert and Warning
AA Administering Areas
AAR After Action Report
ACMs Asbestos-Containing Materials
B/CA Benefit/Cost Analysis
BCP Budget Change Proposal
CADD Computer-Aided Design and Drafting
CD Soil Class CD (stiff soil class)
CERT Community Emergency Response Training
CMU Concrete Masonry Unit
CPTs Cone Penetration Tests
CRC Climate Ready Community
ESAs Environmental Site Assessments
FSR Feasibility Study Report
FTE Full Time Equivalent
FY Fiscal Year
g Acceleration of Gravity
GHG Greenhouse Gases
GIS Geographic Information System
GPS Global Positioning System
IA Individual Assistance
ICC Increased Cost of Compliance
LAG Lowest Adjacent Grade
LAN Local Area Network
M Magnitude ML Local Magnitude (or Richter Magnitude)
MMI Modified Mercalli Intensity Mmax Maximum magnitude earthquake Mw Moment Magnitude (or seismic moment) MCL Maximum Contaminate Level
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MPE Maximum Probable Earthquake
MRE Most Recent Event
MSL Mean Sea Level
NBC Nuclear, Biological, Chemical
NGVD National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929
OA Operational Area
OASIS Operational Satellite Information System
OSB Oriented Strand Board
PA Public Assistance
PC Personal Computer
PGA Peak Ground Acceleration
PGV Peak Ground Velocity
PM Particulate Matter
PSA Public Service Announcement
PSA Peak Spectral Acceleration

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2025 Acronyms Page D - 9
PSPS Public Safety Power Shutoff
PTR Project Time Report
RCP Representative Concentration Pathways
RFI Request for Information
RL Repetitive Loss property
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
SRL Severe Repetitive Loss Property
SVE Soil Vapor Extraction
TEC Travel Expense Claim
TTT Train the Trainer
UCERF Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast
UPS Uninterrupted Power Source
URM Unreinforced Masonry Building
USAR Urban Search and Rescue
UST Underground Storage Tank
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
WAN Wide Area Network
WGCEP Working Group on California Earthquake Probabilities WUI Wildland Urban Interface

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2025 Glossary Page E - 1
APPENDIX E: GLOSSARY
Acceleration
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Acceleration due to gravity at the earth's surface is 9.8 meters per second squared. That means that every second that something falls toward the surface of earth its velocity increases by 9.8 meters per second.

Acceleration of
gravity (g)
The acceleration of gravity (equal to 32 feet per second squared, or 980 centimeters per second squared), and generally expressed as a percentage of gravity.

Acre-foot
Measure of water volume defined as the amount of water required to cover one acre of surface area to a depth of one foot. One acre-foot is approximately equal to 326,000 gallons. Typically used to report the capacity of a reservoir.

Active fault
(also referred to as
Holocene-active fault)
For implementation of Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Fault Zoning Act (APEFZA) requirements, an active fault is one that shows evidence of, or is suspected of having experienced surface displacement within the past 11,700 years. APEFZA classification is designed for land use management of surface rupture hazards. A more general definition (National Academy of Science, 1988), states "a fault that on the basis of historical, seismological, or geological evidence has the finite probability of producing an earthquake" (see potentially active fault).

Acute Quick, one-time exposure to a chemical.

Adaptive capacity
The ability of a species (including humans) to cope and persist under changing conditions through local or regional acclimation, dispersal or migration, adaptation (e.g., behavioral shifts), and/or evolution.

Adjacent grade
Elevation of the natural or graded ground surface, or structural fill, abutting the walls of a building. See highest adjacent grade and lowest adjacent grade.

Aftershocks Minor earthquakes following a greater one and originating at or near the same place.

Aggradation The building up of earth’s surface by deposition of sediment.

Alluvial Pertaining to, or composed of alluvium, or deposited by a stream or running water.

Alluvial fan
A low, outspread, relatively flat to gently sloping surface consisting of loose sediment that is shaped like an open fan, deposited by a stream at the place where the stream comes out of a narrow canyon onto a broad valley or plain. Alluvial fans are steepest at the mouth of the canyon, and spread out, gradually decreasing in gradient, away from the stream source.

Alluvium Surficial sediments of poorly consolidated gravels, sand, silts, and clays deposited by flowing water.

Amplitude The height of a wave between its crest (high point) and its mid-point.

Anchor
To secure a structure to its footings or foundation wall in such a way that a continuous load transfer path is created and so that it will not be displaced by flood, wind, or seismic forces.

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Andesite
Volcanic (rapid cooling) rock of intermediate composition between the mafic-rich (and silica-poor) basalt and the silica-rich rhyolite. Rock type commonly found in subduction zones. Derives its name from the Andes mountains, where this rock type is very common.

Apparatus Fire fighting vehicles of various types.

Appurtenant structure
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, a structure which is on the same parcel of property as the principal structure to be insured and the use of which is incidental.

Aquifer
A body of rock or sediment that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to allow the flow of groundwater and to yield economically significant quantities of groundwater to wells and springs.

Argillic Alteration in which certain minerals of a rock or sediments are converted to clay.

Armor To protect slopes from erosion and scour by flood waters. Techniques of armoring include the use of riprap, gabions, or concrete.

Arsenic
A naturally occurring, toxic element that occurs in rocks, soils and groundwater. Above certain concentrations, it can cause skin, bladder and other cancers.

Artesian
An adjective referring to ground water confined under hydrostatic pressure. The water level in wells drilled into an artesian aquifer (also called a confined aquifer) will stand at some height above the top of the aquifer. If the water reaches the ground surface the well is a “flowing” artesian well.

Aspect The direction a slope faces.

Asset
Any human-made or natural feature that has value, including, but not limited to people, buildings, infrastructure like bridges, roads, and sewer and water systems; lifelines like electricity and communication resources; or environmental, cultural, or recreational features like parks, dunes, wetlands, or landmarks.

Atmospheric river
Narrow streams of water vapor transported in the lower atmosphere that are thought responsible for most of the storms on the west coast of the United States.

Attenuation The reduction in amplitude of a wave with time or distance traveled.

Automatic aid
agreement
An agreement between two or more agencies whereby such agencies are automatically dispatched simultaneously to pre-determined types of emergencies in pre-determined areas.

A zone
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, area subject to inundation by the 100-year flood where wave action does not occur or where waves are less than 3 feet high, designated Zone A, AE, A1-A30, A0, AH, or AR on a Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM).

Baffles
Temporary devices used to slow down and divert the flow of water and mud away from a given area and into a channel or debris basin. Baffles are often made of hay wrapped into long cloth tubes that are pinned to the ground with wooden stakes.

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Basal detachment
fault
Also referred to as a décollement (from French décoller 'to detach from'), is a horizontal to sub-horizontal gliding plane at the contact between two distinct rock masses that results in different styles of deformation in each block. In a compressional setting like the Los Angeles basin, the block above the detachment fault typically develops more intense deformation in the form of folding and faulting compared to the layer or block below.

Basalt Fine-grained extrusive (rapid cooling) igneous rock rich in magnesium and iron; typically dark in color.

Base flood Flood that has a 1 percent probability of being equaled or exceeded in any given year. Also known as the 100-year flood.

Base Flood Elevation
(BFE)
Elevation of the base flood in relation to a specified datum, such as the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929. The Base Flood Elevation is used as the standard for the National Flood Insurance Program.

Basement
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, any area of a building having its floor subgrade on all sides. (Note: What is typically referred to as a “walkout basement,” which has a floor that is at or above grade on at least one side, is not considered a basement under the National Flood Insurance Program.)
Basin
As used in this report, refers to groundwater basin, which is an area underlain by permeable materials (sediments) capable of storing and furnishing significant amounts of water to groundwater wells. The basin is the three—dimensional body under the area described as a basin, including the depth of the water-yielding subsurface materials.

Beaufort scale
A scale devised in 1805 by Admiral Francis Beaufort of the British Navy to classify wind speed based on the wind’s effect on the seas and vegetation. The scale ranges from 0 (calm) to 12 (hurricane).

Bedding The arrangement of a sedimentary rock in beds or layers of varying thickness and character.

Bedrock The solid rock that underlies loose material, such as soil, sand, clay, or gravel.

Bench A grading term that refers to a relatively level step excavated into earth material on which fill is to be placed.

Benefit
A net project outcome, usually defined in monetary terms, that may include direct and indirect effects. For benefit-cost analysis of proposed mitigation measures, benefits are limited to specific, measurable risk reduction factors, such as a reduction in expected property losses and protection of human life.

Benefit-cost analysis
(BCA)
A systematic, quantitative method of comparing projected benefits to projected costs of a project or policy. Used to measure cost-effectiveness.

Berm Horizontal portion of the backshore beach formed by sediments deposited by waves.

Bioaccumulative
Substances, such as pesticides and other chemicals, that slowly accumulate in an organism reaching concentrations higher than in the surrounding environment because the substance is not readily eliminated through excretion or catabolism. Typically said of substances that at higher concentrations become toxic.

Bioregion A major, regional ecological community characterized by distinctive life forms and distinctive plant and animal species.

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Blind thrust fault A thrust fault is a low-angle reverse fault (top block pushed over bottom block). A "blind" thrust fault refers to one that does not reach the surface.

Block slide
A type of translational slide where large and relatively intact slabs of rock or earth are rapidly transported downslope. These landslides can be large and damaging and occur where alternating layers of strong and weak rock slope downhill.

Braided stream
A stream that divides into or follows an interlacing or tangled network of several small, branching and reuniting shallow channels separated from each other by channel bars. Also referred to as an anastomosing stream.

Breakaway wall
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, a wall that is not part of the structural support of the building and is intended through its design and construction to collapse under specific lateral loading forces, without causing damage to the elevated portion of the building or supporting foundation system. Breakaway walls are required by the National Flood Insurance Program regulations for any enclosures constructed below the Base Flood Elevation beneath elevated buildings in Coastal High Hazard Areas (also referred to as V zones). In addition, breakaway walls are recommended in areas where flood waters flow at high velocities or contain ice or other debris.

Brush A collective term that refers to stands of vegetation dominated by shrubby, woody plants, or low-growing trees.

Brushfire A fire burning in vegetation that is predominantly shrubs, brush, and scrub growth.

Building
A structure that is walled and roofed, principally above ground and permanently affixed to a site. The term includes a manufactured home on a permanent foundation on which the wheels and axles carry no weight.

Building code Regulations adopted by local governments that establish standards for construction, modification, and repair of buildings and other structures.

Built-up roof covering Two or more layers of felt cemented together and surfaced with a cap sheet, mineral aggregate, smooth coating, or similar surfacing material.

Bulkhead
Wall or other structure, often of wood, steel, stone, or concrete, designed to retain or prevent sliding or erosion of the land. Occasionally, bulkheads are used to protect against wave action.

Carcinogen Material capable of causing cancer in humans.

Cast-in-place
concrete
Concrete that is poured and formed at the construction site.

CEQA
The California Environmental Quality Act (Chapters 1 through 6 of Division 13 of the Public Resources Code). A state statute that requires state and local agencies to identify the significant environmental impacts of their actions and to avoid or mitigate those impacts, if feasible.

Chronic Continual or repeated exposure to a hazardous material.

Cladding Exterior surface of the building envelope that is directly loaded by the wind.

Clay
A rock or mineral fragment having a diameter less than 1/256 mm (4 microns, or 0.00016 in.). Commonly applied to any soft, adhesive, finegrained deposit.

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Claystone
An indurated clay having the texture and composition of shale, but lacking its fine lamination. A massive mudstone in which clay predominates over silt.

Climate The average condition of weather over time in a given region.

Climate change
Long-term shifts in weather patterns and temperatures. These changes may be natural, but since the 1800s have been driven by human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels which generates gases that trap heat in the atmosphere.

Climate change
adaptation
The process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects.

Climate change
mitigation
A human intervention to reduce the human impact on the climate system.

Typically includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas sources and emissions and enhance greenhouse gas sinks (carbon sinks).

Clod Lump or mass of soil or sediment.

Code official
Officer or other designated authority charged with the administration and enforcement of the code, or a duly authorized representative, such as a building, zoning, planning, or floodplain management official.

Coliform
A group of rod-shaped bacteria that are found in water, soil, and on vegetation, and are present in large numbers in the feces of warm-blooded animals. The coliform count is used as an indicator of the sanitary conditions of foods and water. Most genera of coliform are not harmful to humans, but a few kinds, including some strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli) can be debilitating to sensitive individuals, including children, seniors, and those with compromised immune systems.

Collapse
A relatively sudden change in the volume of a soil mass resulting in the local settlement of the ground surface, with the potential to cause significant damage to overlying structures. If due to strong ground shaking, the soil grains in the soil column are re-arranged by the shaking so that the pore space between grains is reduced and the grains become more tightly packed, resulting in the overall reduction of the thickness of the soil column. This is referred to as earthquake-induced subsidence. Collapse can also occur in certain types of sediments, where with the introduction of water (due to an increase in irrigation, for example), the cement between soil grains dissolves, allowing the soil particles to become more tightly packed, again resulting in the local settlement of the ground surface. This process is also referred to as hydro-collapse or hydroconsolidation.

Colluvium
Loose, unconsolidated sediments deposited at the base of a slope by rainwash, sheetwash, slope creep, or mudflows; these materials typically are poorly sorted, containing a variety of grain sizes and rock types. Can also refer to loose sediment formed from the in-place weathering of rocks.

Column foundation
Foundation consisting of vertical support members with a height-to-leastlateral-dimension ratio greater than three. Columns are set in holes and backfilled with compacted material. They are usually made of concrete or masonry and often must be braced. Columns are sometimes known as posts, particularly if the column is made of wood.

Community at Risk Wildland interface community in the vicinity of Federal lands that is at high risk from wildfire.

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Community Rating
System (CRS)
An NFIP program that provides incentives for NFIP communities to complete activities that reduce flood hazard risk. When the community completes specified activities, the insurance premiums of policyholders in these communities are reduced.

Community
Resilience
Ability of a community to prepare for anticipated natural hazards, adapt to changing conditions and withstand and recover rapidly from disruptions. FEMA identified 22 indicators that they used to develop their Community Resilience Challenges Index (CRCI).

Complex (Fire) Two or more individual incidents located in the same general area and assigned to a single incident commander or unified command.

Compressible soil Geologically young unconsolidated sediment of low density that may compress under the weight of a proposed fill embankment or structure.

Computer-Aided
Design And Drafting
(CADD)
A computerized system enabling quick and accurate electronic 2-D and 3-D drawings, topographic mapping, site plans, and profile/cross-section drawings.

Concrete Masonry
Unit (CMU)
Building unit or block larger than 12 inches by 4 inches by 4 inches made of cement and suitable aggregates.

Conglomerate
A coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed of rounded to subangular fragments larger than 2 mm in diameter set in a fine-grained matrix of sand or silt, and commonly cemented by calcium carbonate, iron oxide, silica or hardened clay. The consolidated equivalent of gravel.

Connector Mechanical device for securing two or more pieces, parts, or members together, including anchors, wall ties, and fasteners.

Consolidation
Any process whereby loosely aggregated, soft earth materials become firm and cohesive rock. Also, the gradual reduction in volume and increase in density of a soil mass in response to increased load or effective compressive stress, such as the squeezing of fluids from pore spaces.

Contour A line of equal ground elevation on a topographic (contour) map.

Contraction joint
Groove that is formed, sawed, or tooled in a concrete structure to create a weakened plane and regulate the location of cracking resulting from the dimensional change of different parts of the structure. See Isolation joint.

Corrosion-resistant
metal
Any nonferrous metal or any metal having an unbroken surfacing of nonferrous metal, or steel with not less than 10 percent chromium or with not less than 0.20 percent copper.

Corrosive soils Soils with a high proportion of certain chemicals or salts that make them corrosive to metal or concrete.

Coseismic rupture Ground rupture occurring during an earthquake but not necessarily on the causative fault.

Cretaceous
The final period of the Mesozoic era (before the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic era), thought to have occurred between about 136 and 65 million years ago.

Critical facility
Facilities that are critical to the health and welfare of the population and that are especially important following hazard events. Critical facilities include, but are not limited to, shelters, police and fire stations, and hospitals.

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Dam
Any artificial barrier that has the ability to capture water, wastewater or any liquid-borne material for the purpose of either storing it or controlling it.

Dam failure Uncontrolled release of captured water due to the partial or complete breach of a dam or levee.

Dead load
Weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the building, including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, builtin partitions, finishes, cladding, and other similarly incorporated architectural and structural items and fixed service equipment. See Loads.

Debris
(Seismic) The scattered remains of something broken or destroyed; ruins; rubble; fragments. (Flooding, Coastal) Solid objects or masses carried by or floating on the surface of moving water.

Debris avalanche
A type of surficial slope failure that involves the rapid movement of a relatively thin section of saturated rock and/or soil down a steep slope, usually carrying vegetation and other debris within the slurry. Also called a mudflow.

Debris basin
Structure designed to capture sediment, gravel, boulders, and vegetative debris that wash out of canyons during storms but allows water to flow into the downstream storm drain system, thereby reducing flood risk for communities downstream.

Debris burning Any fire originally set for the purpose of clearing land or for burning rubbish, garbage, range, stubble, or meadow burning.

Debris impact loads
Loads imposed on a structure by the impact of flood-borne debris. These loads are often sudden and large. Though difficult to predict, debris impact loads must be considered when structures are designed and constructed.

See Loads.

Debris flow
A saturated, rapidly moving saturated earth flow with 50 percent rock fragments coarser than 2 mm in size which can occur on natural and graded slopes.

Debris line
Line left on a structure or on the ground by the deposition of debris. A debris line often indicates the height or inland extent reached by flood waters.

Deck Exterior floor supported on at least two opposing sides by an adjacent structure and/or posts, piers, or other independent supports.

Décollement See basal detachment fault.

Defensible space
An area, either natural or human-made, where material capable of causing a fire to spread has been treated, cleared, reduced, or changed in order to provide a barrier between an advancing wildland fire and the loss to life, property, or resources. In practice, defensible space is defined as an area with a minimum of 100 feet around a structure that is cleared of flammable brush or vegetation. Distance from the structure and the degree of fuels treatment vary with vegetation type, slope, density, and other factors.

Deflected canyons A diversion in the trend of a stream or canyon caused by any number of processes, including folding and faulting.

Deformation A general term for the process of folding, faulting, shearing, compression, or extension of rocks.

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Design flood
The greater of either (1) the base flood or (2) the flood associated with the flood hazard area depicted on a community’s flood hazard map, or otherwise legally designated.

Design Flood
Elevation (DFE)
Elevation of the design flood, or the flood protection elevation required by a community, including wave effects, relative to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum, North American Vertical Datum, or other datum.

Design flood
protection depth
Vertical distance between the eroded ground elevation and the Design Flood Elevation.

Design stillwater
flood depth
Vertical distance between the eroded ground elevation and the design stillwater flood elevation.

Design stillwater
flood elevation
Stillwater elevation associated with the design flood, excluding wave effects, relative to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum, North American Vertical Datum, or other datum.

Development
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, any human-made change to improved or unimproved real estate, including but not limited to buildings or other structures, mining, dredging, filling, grading, paving, excavation, or drilling operations or storage of equipment or materials Diabase Mafic shallow intrusive rock similar in composition to a basalt or plutonic gabbro.

Differential settlement
Non-uniform settlement; the uneven lowering of different parts of an engineered structure, often resulting in damage to the structure.

Sometimes included with liquefaction as ground failure phenomenon.

Digitize
To convert electronically points, lines, and area boundaries shown on maps into x, y coordinates (e.g., latitude and longitude, universal transverse mercator (UTM), or table coordinates) for use in computer applications.

Dike
A tabular shaped, igneous intrusion that cuts across bedding of the surrounding rock.

An embankment to confine or control water, often built along the banks of a river to prevent overflow of lowlands. A levee.

Disaster declaration
(DR)
Declaration for event that causes more damage than state and local governments and resources can handle without federal government assistance. A federal DR puts into motion long-term federal recovery programs, some of which are matched by state programs, to help disaster victims, businesses, and public entities to jumpstart recovery efforts.

Dispatch The implementation of a command decision to move a resource or resources from one place to another.

Displacement The length, measured in kilometers, of the total movement that has occurred along a fault over as long a time as the geologic record reveals.

Displacement time
The average time (in days) which the building's occupants typically must operate from a temporary location while repairs are made to the original building due to damages resulting from a hazard event.

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DMA 2000
Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000. Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, as amended by Public Law 106-390, October 30, 2000. DMA 2000 is intended to establish a continuing means of assistance by the Federal Government to State and local governments in carrying out their responsibilities to alleviate the suffering and damage which result from disasters by (1) revising and broadening the scope of existing disaster relief programs; (2) encouraging the development of comprehensive disaster preparedness and assistance plans, programs, capabilities, and organizations by the States and by local governments; (3) achieving greater coordination and responsiveness of disaster preparedness and relief programs; (4) encouraging individuals, States, and local governments to protect themselves by obtaining insurance coverage to supplement or replace governmental assistance; (5) encouraging hazard mitigation measures to reduce losses from disasters, including development of land use and construction regulations; and (6) providing Federal assistance programs for both public and private losses sustained in disasters .

Drought A prolonged period of lower-than-normal precipitation levels, which leads to a shortage of water.

Duration How long a hazard event lasts.

Dust storm
High wind event common in arid and semi-arid regions. Strong winds pick up sand and other particulates and transport them by saltation and suspension to another location.

Dynamic analysis
A complex earthquake-resistant engineering design technique (UBC - used for critical facilities) capable of modeling the entire frequency spectra, or composition, of ground motion. The method is used to evaluate the stability of a site or structure by considering the motion from any source or mass, such as that dynamic motion produced by machinery or a seismic event.

Earth flow
Imperceptibly slow-moving surficial material in which 80 percent or more of the fragments are smaller than 2 mm, including a range of rock and mineral fragments.

Earthquake
Vibratory motion propagating within the Earth or along its surface caused by the abrupt release of strain from elastically deformed rock by displacement along a fault.

Earth's crust The outermost layer or shell of the Earth.

Effective Flood
Insurance Rate Map
(FIRM)
See Flood Insurance Rate Map.

El Niño
Phenomenon that originates, every few years, typically in December or early January, in the southern Pacific Ocean, off of the western coast of South America, characterized by warmer than usual water. This warmer water is statistically linked with increased rainfall in both the southeastern and southwestern United States, droughts in Australia, western Africa and Indonesia, reduced number of hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean, and increased number of hurricanes in the Eastern Pacific.

Emergency
declaration (EM)
Declarations issued by the federal government to supplement state and local or Tribal nation efforts to provide emergency services, such as protection of lives, property, public health and safety, or to lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe.

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Emergency Planning
and Community Right
to Know (EPCRA)
The portion of SARA that specifically outlines how industries report chemical inventory to the community.

Enclosure
That portion of an elevated building below the Design Flood Elevation (DFE) that is partially or fully surrounded by solid (including breakaway) walls.

Encroachment Any physical object placed in a floodplain that hinders the passage of water or otherwise affects the flood flows.

En echelon
In geology, this term applies to parallel to subparallel, closely spaced to overlapping or step-like features such as faults and tension fractures that are oblique to the overall structural trend.

Engineering geologist
A geologist who is certified by the State as qualified to apply geologic data, principles, and interpretation to naturally occurring earth materials so that geologic factors affecting planning, design, construction, and maintenance of civil engineering works are properly recognized and used.

An engineering geologist is particularly needed to conduct investigations, often with geotechnical engineers, of sites with potential ground failure hazards.

Environmental
Protection Agency
(EPA)
Federal agency tasked with ensuring the protection of the environment and the nation’s citizens.

Eolian (also written
Aeolian)
Derived from the action of the wind; usually refers to sediments deposited by the wind, like sand dunes, but also refers to the landforms created by wind action.

Ephemeral stream A stream or reach of a stream that flows only briefly in direct response to precipitation.

Epicenter The point at the Earth's surface directly above where an earthquake originated.

Episodic erosion
Erosion induced by a single storm event. Episodic erosion considers the vertical component of two factors: general beach profile lowering and localized conical scour around foundation supports. Episodic erosion is relevant to foundation embedment depth and potential undermining. See Erosion.

Equity All people are justly and fairly included in society, and everyone is able to participate, prosper and achieve their full potential (Cal OES definition).

Erodible soil
Soil subject to wearing away and movement due to the effects of wind, water, or other geological processes during a flood or storm or over a period of years.

Erosion
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, the process of the gradual wearing away of landmasses. In general, erosion involves the detachment and movement of soil and rock fragments, during a flood or storm or over a period of years, through the action of wind, water, or other geologic processes.

Erosion analysis
Analysis of the short- and long-term erosion potential of soil or strata, including the effects of wind action, flooding or storm surge, moving water, wave action, and the interaction of water and structural components.

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Erosion hazard area
Area anticipated to be lost to shoreline retreat over a given period of time.

The projected inland extent of the area is measured by multiplying the average annual long-term recession rate by the number of years desired.

Essential facility
Elements that are important to ensure a full recovery of a community or state following a hazard event. These would include: government functions, major employers, banks, schools, and certain commercial establishments, such as grocery stores, hardware stores, and gas stations.

Estuarine
Related to or formed in an estuary, the area where a river meets the sea.

Estuarine sediments are typically deposited in brackish water and consist predominantly of marine and riverine clay and silt with a relatively large concentration of decomposed terrestrial organic material.

Evacuation
Movement of people from an area, typically their homes, to another area considered to be safe, typically in response to a natural or human-made disaster that makes an area unsafe.

Expansive soil
A soil that contains clay minerals that take in water and expand. If a soil contains sufficient amount of these clay minerals, the volume of the soil can change significantly with changes in moisture, with resultant structural damage to structures founded on these materials.

Exposure
In regards to climate change, the amount and rate of change that a population or system experiences from the direct (e.g., temperature, precipitation changes) or indirect (e.g., habitat shifts due to changing vegetation composition) impacts of climate change. In regards to hazardous materials, coming into contact with a hazardous substance, either through inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion. In general, the number and dollar value of assets considered to be at risk during the occurrence of a specific hazard.

Extent The size of an area affected by a hazard or hazard event.

Extratropical cyclone
Cyclonic storm events like Nor'easters and severe winter low-pressure systems. Both West and East coasts can experience these non-tropical storms that produce gale-force winds and precipitation in the form of heavy rain or snow. These cyclonic storms, commonly called Nor'easters on the East Coast because of the direction of the storm winds, can last for several days and can be very large–1,000-mile-wide storms are not uncommon.

Extreme heat
Summertime temperatures that are much hotter or more humid than average. Because climate varies with location, the definition of extreme heat varies in different locales. However, in most of the United States, extreme heat is defined as a long period (2 to 3 days) of high heat and humidity with temperatures above 90 degrees.

Extremely hazardous
substance
A substance that shows high acute or chronic toxicity, carcinogenity, bioaccumulative properties, is persistent in the environment, or is water reactive (California Code of Regulations, Title 22).

Fault
A fracture in the continuity of a rock formation caused by a shifting or dislodging of the earth's crust, in which adjacent surfaces are differentially displaced parallel to the plane of fracture.

Fault segment A continuous portion of a fault zone that is likely to rupture along its entire length during an earthquake.

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Fault slip rate The average long-term movement of a fault (measured in cm/year or mm/year) as determined from geologic evidence.

Fault strand A fault that is mappable as a single, fairly continuous feature.

Fault trace
The intersection of the fault plane with the Earth’s surface. If not erased by erosion, the fault trace may be visible in the form of cracks, scarps, deflected or offset channels, furrows or ridges, and differences in the type of geologic material across the fault. Also used to denote the line plotted on a map to show the location of a fault.

Federal Emergency
Management Agency
(FEMA)
Independent agency created in 1978 to provide a single point of accountability for all Federal activities related to disaster mitigation and emergency preparedness, response and recovery.

Federal Insurance
Administration (FIA)
The component of the Federal Emergency Management Agency directly responsible for administering the flood insurance aspects of the National Flood Insurance Program.

Fill Material such as soil, gravel, or crushed stone placed in an area to increase ground elevations or change soil properties.

Fire complex Two or more individual fire incidents located in the same general area which are assigned to a single incident commander or unified command.

Fire behavior The manner in which a fire reacts to the influences of fuel, weather and topography.

Fire flow
The flow rate of a water supply expressed in gallons per minute (gpm), measured at 20 pounds per square inch (psi) residual pressure, that is available for firefighting.

Fire frequency The number of fires occurring within a defined area in a given time period.

Fire regime
The long-term fire pattern characteristic of a region or ecosystem described using a combination of seasonality, fire return interval, size, spatial complexity, intensity, severity, and fire type.

Fire resistant
A characteristic of a plant species that allows individuals to resist damage or mortality during a fire. Also used to describe construction materials that resist damage to fire.

FIRESCOPE
FIrefighting RESources of California Organized for Potential Emergencies.

A cooperative effort involving all agencies with fire-fighting responsibilities in California. The goal of this group is to create and implement new applications in fire service management, technology and coordination, with an emphasis on incident command and multi-agency coordination. This dynamic state-wide program serves the needs of California fire service management as an ongoing program.

First responders A group designated by the community as those who may be first to arrive at the scene of a fire, accident or chemical release.

Fire weather
The weather conditions that influence fire behavior, including air temperature, atmospheric moisture, atmospheric stability, clouds and precipitation.

Five hundred (500)-
year flood
Flood that has as 0.2-percent probability of being equaled or exceeded in any given year.

Flash flood A flood event occurring with little or no warning where water levels rise at an extremely fast rate.

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Flight operations Departures and arrivals combined, of aircraft at an airport.

Flood
A rising body of water, as in a stream or lake, which overtops its natural and artificial confines and covers land not normally under water. Under the National Flood Insurance Program, either (a) a general and temporary condition or partial or complete inundation of normally dry land areas from:
(1) the overflow of inland or tidal waters,
(2) the unusual and rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters from any source, or
(3) mudslides (i.e., mudflows) which are proximately caused by flooding as defined in (2) and are akin to a river of liquid and flowing mud on the surfaces of normally dry land areas, as when the earth is carried by a current of water and deposited along the path of the current,
or (b) the collapse or subsidence of land along the shore of a lake or other body of water as a result of erosion or undermining caused by waves or currents of water exceeding anticipated cyclical levels or suddenly caused by an unusually high water level in a natural body of water, accompanied by a severe storm, or by an unanticipated force of nature, such as flash flood or abnormal tidal surge, or by some similarly unusual and unforeseeable event which results in flooding as defined in (1), above.

Flood-damageresistant material
Any construction material capable of withstanding direct and prolonged contact (i.e., at least 72 hours) with floodwaters without suffering significant damage (i.e., damage that requires more than cleanup or lowcost cosmetic repair, such as painting).

Flood depth Height of the flood-water surface above the ground surface.

Flood elevation
Height of the water surface above an established elevation datum such as the National Geodetic Vertical Datum, North American Vertical Datum, or mean sea level.

Flood hazard area
The greater of the following: (1) the area of special flood hazard, as defined under the National Flood Insurance Program, or (2) the area designated as a flood hazard area on a community’s legally adopted flood hazard map, or otherwise legally designated.

Flood insurance Insurance coverage provided under the National Flood Insurance Program.

Flood Insurance Rate
Map (FIRM)
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, an official map of a community, on which the Federal Emergency Management Agency has delineated both the special hazard areas and the risk premium zones applicable to the community. (Note: The latest FIRM issued for a community is referred to as the effective FIRM for that community.) Flood Insurance Study
(FIS)
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, an examination, evaluation, and determination of flood hazards and, if appropriate, corresponding water surface elevations, or an examination, evaluation, and determination of mudslide (i.e., mudflow) and/or flood-related erosion hazards in a community or communities. (Note: The National Flood Insurance Program regulations refer to Flood Insurance Studies as “flood elevation studies.”)
Flooding See Flood.

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Floodplain Any land area, including watercourse, susceptible to partial or complete inundation by water from any source.

Floodplain
management
Operation of an overall program of corrective and preventive measures for reducing flood damage, including but not limited to emergency preparedness plans, flood control works, and floodplain management regulations.

Floodplain
management
regulations
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, zoning ordinances, subdivision regulations, building codes, health regulations, special purpose ordinances (such as floodplain ordinance, grading ordinance, and erosion control ordinance), and other applications of police power. The term describes such state or local regulations, in any combination thereof, which provide standards for the purpose of flood damage prevention and reduction.

Flood-related erosion
area or flood-related
erosion prone area
A land area adjoining the shore of a lake or other body of water, which due to the composition of the shoreline or bank and high-water levels or wind-driven currents, is likely to suffer flood-related erosion damage.

Floodway
The channel of a river or other watercourse, and the adjacent land areas that must be kept free of encroachment in order to discharge the base flood without cumulatively increasing the water surface elevation more than a certain height.

Flow failure
A type of liquefaction-induced failure that generally occurs in slopes greater than 3 degrees, and that is characterized by the displacement, over tens to hundreds of feet, of blocks of soil riding on top of the liquefied substrate.

Footing
Enlarged base of a foundation wall, pier, post, or column designed to spread the load of the structure so that it does not exceed the soil bearing capacity.

Footprint Land area occupied by a structure.

Freeboard
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, a factor of safety, usually expressed in feet above a flood level, for the purposes of floodplain management. Freeboard tends to compensate for the many unknown factors that could contribute to flood heights greater than the heights calculated for a selected size flood and floodway conditions, such as the hydrological effect of urbanization of the watershed.

Frequency
A measure of how often events of a particular magnitude are expected to occur. Frequency describes how often a hazard of a specific magnitude, duration, and/or extent typically occurs, on average. Statistically, a hazard with a 100-year recurrence interval is expected to occur once every 100 years on average, and would have a 1 percent chance – its probability – of happening in any given year. The reliability of this information varies depending on the kind of hazard being considered.

Fuel
The source of heat that sustains the combustion process. In wildland fires, fuel is the combustible plant biomass, including grass, leaves, ground litter, shrubs, plants and trees.

Fuel load The amount of fuel that is potentially available for combustion.

Fuel moisture The moisture content expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the fuel.

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Fuel modification
zone
Ribbon of land surrounding a development within a fire hazardous area that is designed to diminish the intensity of a wildfire as it approaches the structures.

Functional downtime The average time (in days) during which a function (business or service) is unable to provide its services due to a hazard event.

Funnel clouds
Cone-shaped or needle-like clouds that extend down from the main cloud base but do not extend to the ground surface. If a funnel cloud touches the ground, it becomes a tornado.

Gabion
Rock-filled cage made of wire or metal that is placed on slopes or embankments to protect them from erosion caused by flowing or fastmoving water.

Geographic area
impacted
The physical area in which the effects of the hazard are experienced.

Geographic
Information Systems
(GIS)
A computer software application that relates physical features on the Earth to a database to be used for mapping and analysis.

Geogrid A tough polymeric net-like material that is placed between the horizontal layers of artificial fill to strengthen a human-made slope.

Geomorphology
The science that treats the general configuration of the Earth's surface. The study of the classification, description, nature, origin and development of landforms, and the history of geologic changes as recorded by these surface features.

Geotechnical
engineer
A licensed civil engineer who is also certified by the State as qualified for the investigation and engineering evaluation of earth materials and their interaction with earth retention systems, structural foundations, and other civil engineering works.

Glacials
Refers to glacial periods, or ice ages, that occurred in the Quaternary, when large, continental-sized ice sheets covered the Northern Hemisphere. When the ice sheets retreated, these periods are called interglacials. Several glacials and interglacials occurred during the Quaternary.

Goal
General guideline that explains what is to be achieved. Typically, broadbased, long-term, policy-type statements that represent global visions.

Goals help to define the benefits that a plan is trying to achieve. The success of a LHMP is measured by the degree to which its goals have been met.

Grade beam
Section of a concrete slab that is thicker than the slab and acts as a footing to provide stability, often under load-bearing or critical structural walls.

Grade beams are occasionally installed to provide lateral support for vertical foundation members where they enter the ground.

Grading
Any excavating or filling or combination thereof. Generally refers to the modification of the natural landscape into pads suitable as foundations for structures.

Granite Broadly applied, any completely crystalline, quartz-bearing, plutonic rock.

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Graywacke
Dark-colored poorly sorted sandstone with angular grains of quartz, feldspar and small rock fragments in a clay-rich matrix. Thought to be related to turbidite deposits; typically found on the edges of continental shelves and the bottoms of oceanic trenches.

Greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions
Gases released during the combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas, that accumulate in the atmosphere and trap solar radiation.

Carbon dioxide makes up the majority of these gases, but methane and nitrous oxide are also important components.

Ground failure Permanent ground displacement produced by fault rupture, differential settlement, liquefaction, or slope failure.

Ground lurching
A form of earthquake-induced ground failure where soft, saturated soils move in a wave-like manner in response to intense seismic ground shaking, forming ridges or cracks at the surface.

Ground motion
The vibration or shaking of the ground during an earthquake. When a fault ruptures, seismic waves radiate, causing the ground to vibrate. The severity of the vibration increases with the amount of energy released and decreases with distance from the causative fault or epicenter, but soft soils can further amplify ground motions
Ground oscillations
A type of liquefaction-induced failure where liquefaction occurs at depth, in an area where the ground surface is too level to permit the lateral displacement of the overlying soil blocks. The blocks instead separate from one another and oscillate above the liquefied layer. This may result in the opening and closing of fissures or cracks, and the formation of sand boils or sand volcanoes.

Ground rupture Displacement of the earth's surface as a result of fault movement associated with an earthquake.

Hail Solid precipitation consisting of fragments of ice water called hailstones.

Hazard
A source of potential danger or adverse condition, such as naturally occurring events such as floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, tsunami, coastal storms, landslides, and wildfires that strike populated areas. A natural event is a hazard when it has the potential to harm people or property.

Hazard event A specific occurrence of a particular type of hazard.

Hazard identification The process of identifying hazards that threaten an area.

Hazard mitigation Sustained actions taken to reduce or eliminate long-term risk from hazards and their effects.

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Hazardous material
(HAZMAT)
Substance that has the ability to harm humans, property or the environment. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines hazardous waste as substances that:
1) may cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness;
2) pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of or otherwise managed; and
3) whose characteristics can be measured by a standardized test or reasonably detected by generators of solid waste through their knowledge of their waste.

Hazardous waste is also ignitable, corrosive, or reactive (explosive) (EPA 40 CFR 260.10). A material may also be classified as hazardous if it contains defined amounts of toxic chemicals.

Hazard profile
A description of the physical characteristics of hazards and a determination of various descriptors including magnitude, duration, frequency, probability, and extent. In most cases, a community can most easily use these descriptors when they are recorded and displayed as maps.

Hazardous Waste
Operations and
Emergency Response
(HAZWOPER)
The Occupational Safety and Health Agency (OSHA) regulations that cover safety and health issues at hazardous waste sites and response to chemical incidents.

Hazard reduction Any treatment of a hazard that reduces its threat.

HazUS (Hazards U.S.) A GIS-based nationally standardized earthquake loss estimation tool developed by FEMA.

Head scarp
The upslope portion of a landslide, generally defined by a steep slope at the head, where displaced material has moved away from the undisturbed portion of the slope.

Heat wave Periods of excessive heat, typically exceeding 95 degrees Fahrenheit, often with high levels of humidity, and lasting more than three days.

Hexavalent
chromium
Compounds that contain the element chromium in its +6 (hexa) oxidation state. These compounds are used extensively in several different industries; however, it is a known human carcinogen and thus its use is now regulated. Groundwater in many parts of the country has been contaminated with varying levels of hexavalent chromium.

High-hazard dam Dam whose failure or improper operation can cause loss of human life.

High-velocity wave
action
Condition in which wave heights or wave runup depths are greater than or equal to 3.0 feet.

Highest adjacent
grade
Elevation of the highest natural or regarded ground surface, or structural fill, that abuts the walls of a building.

Holocene An epoch of the Quaternary period spanning from the end of the Pleistocene to the present time (the past about 11,700 years).

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Hurricane
An intense tropical cyclone, formed in the atmosphere over warm ocean areas, in which wind speeds reach 74-miles-per-hour or more and blow in a large spiral around a relatively calm center or "eye." Hurricanes develop over the north Atlantic Ocean, northeast Pacific Ocean, or the south Pacific Ocean east of 160°E longitude. Hurricane circulation is counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

Hurricane clip or
strap
Structural connector, usually metal, used to tie roof, wall, floor, and foundation members together so that they can resist wind forces.

Hydrocompaction
Settlement of loose, granular soils that occurs when the loose, dry structure of the sand grains held together by a clay binder or other cementing agent collapses upon the introduction of water.

Hydrodynamic loads
Loads imposed on an object, such as a building, by water flowing against and around it. Among these loads are positive frontal pressure against the structure, drag effect along the sides, and negative pressure on the downstream side.

Hydrology The science of dealing with the waters of the earth. A flood discharge is developed by a hydrologic study.

Hydrostatic loads
Loads imposed on a surface, such as a wall or floor slab, by a standing mass of water. The water pressure increases with the square of the water depth.

Hypocenter The earthquake focus, that is, the place at depth, along the fault plane, where an earthquake rupture started.

Hypothermia
Abnormally low body temperature (typically below 95 degrees Fahrenheit) that is accompanied by any of several signs, including uncontrollable shivering, disorientation, memory loss, slurred speech, drowsiness, and apparent exhaustion.

Igneous Type of rock or mineral that formed from molten or partially molten magma.

Ignition point The location of the ignition.

Ignition source The origin or source of a fire.

Infiltration The process by which water seeps into the soil, as influenced by soil texture, soil structure, and vegetation cover.

Infrastructure
Refers to the public services of a community that have a direct impact on the quality of life. Infrastructure includes communication technology such as phone lines or Internet access, vital services such as public water supplies and sewer treatment facilities, and includes an area's transportation system such as airports, heliports; highways, bridges, tunnels, roadbeds, overpasses, railways, bridges, rail yards, depots; and waterways, canals, locks, seaports, ferries, harbors, drydocks, piers and regional dams.

Inner Safety Zone
(ISZ)
High-risk area in and adjacent to an airport runway that is subject to approach undershoot accidents, emergency landings on straight out departures, and runway overruns. Also referred to as the Inner Departure/Approach Zone.

Intensity A measure of the effects of a hazard event at a particular place.

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Intrusive
Said of igneous rocks that formed from magma invading existing rocks in the subsurface, and cooling off over millennia in the subsurface, leading to the formation of relatively large crystals (crystallizing). Intrusive rocks typically form veins, dikes, sills, batholiths, laccoliths, and other similar structures.

Invasive plants
Plants that aggressively expand their ranges over the landscape, typically at the expense of native plants that are displaced or destroyed by the newcomers. Invasive species are typically considered a major threat to biological diversity.

Inventory
The assets identified in a planning area that could be lost when a disaster occurs. Assets include people, buildings, transportation and other valued community resources.

ISO
Insurance Services Office. Private organization that formulates fire safety ratings based on fire threat and responsible agency’s ability to respond to the threat. ISO ratings from one (excellent) to ten (no fire protection). Many insurance companies use ISO ratings to set insurance premiums.

Isolation joint
Separation between adjoining parts of a concrete structure, usually a vertical plane, at a designated location such as to interfere least with the performance of the structure, yet such as to allow relative movement in three directions and avoid formation of cracks elsewhere in the concrete and through which all or part of the bonded reinforcement is interrupted.

See Contraction joint.

Itinerant aircraft
Aircraft that use an airport on an irregular basis, without regular scheduling. Typically refers to aircraft that are not based at that particular airport, and that do not fly in and out of that airport on a regular basis. The opposite are referred to as Local aircraft.

Jet stream A relatively narrow stream of fast-moving air in the middle and upper troposphere. Surface cyclones develop and move along the jet stream.

Jetting (of piles) Use of a high-pressure stream of water to embed a pile in sandy soil. See pile foundation.

Joist Any of the parallel structural members of a floor system that support, and are usually immediately beneath, the floor.
ka Thousands of years before present.

Lacustrine Pertaining to or related to a lake. Refers both to sediments deposited in a lake environment, and the landforms associated with lakes.

Ladder fuels Fuels that provide vertical continuity between strata, allowing fire to move from the surface fuels to the crowns of shrubs and trees with relative ease.

Landslide
A general term covering a wide variety of mass-movement landforms and processes involving the downslope transport, under gravitational influence, of soil and rock material en masse.

Lateral force The force of the horizontal, side-to-side motion on the Earth's surface as measured on a particular mass; either a building or structure.

Lateral spreading Lateral movements in a fractured mass of rock or soil which result from liquefaction or plastic flow or subjacent materials.

Left-lateral fault A strike-slip fault across which a viewer would see the block on the opposite side of the fault move to the left.

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Levee Human-made structure, usually an earthen embankment, used to contain, control, or divert the flow of water to try and reduce flooding risk.

Level-of-service
standard (LOS
standard)
Quantifiable measures against which services being delivered by a service provider can be compared. Standards based upon recognized and accepted professional and county standards, while reflecting the local situation within which services are being delivered. Levels-of-service standards for fire protection may include response times, personnel per given population, and emergency water supply. LOS standards can be used to evaluate the way in which fire protection services are being delivered, for use in countywide fire planning efforts.

Lifeline system Linear conduits or corridors for the delivery of services or movement of people and information (e.g., pipelines, telephones, freeways, railroads).

Lineament
Straight or gently curved, lengthy features of earth’s surface, frequently expressed topographically as depressions or lines of depressions, scarps, benches, or change in vegetation.

Liquefaction
Changing of soils (unconsolidated alluvium) from a solid state to weaker state unable to support structures; where the material behaves similar to a liquid as a consequence of earthquake shaking. The transformation of cohesionless soils from a solid or liquid state as a result of increased pore pressure and reduced effective stress.

Litter Recently fallen plant material that is only partially decomposed, forming a surface layer on some soils.

Live loads
Loads produced by the use and occupancy of the building or other structure. Live loads do not include construction or environmental loads such as wind load, snow load, rain load, earthquake load, flood load, or dead load. See Loads.

Load-bearing wall Wall that supports any vertical load in addition to its own weight. See Non-load-bearing wall.

Loads
Forces or other actions that result from the weight of all building materials, occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, differential movement, and restrained dimensional changes. Permanent loads are those in which variations over time are rare or of small magnitude. All other loads are variable loads.

Local government
Any county, municipality, city, town, township, public authority, school district, special district, intrastate district, council of governments, regional or interstate government entity, or agency or instrumentality of a local government; any Tribal Nation or authorized Tribal organization; and any rural community, unincorporated town or village, or other public entity.

Local Hazard
Mitigation Plan
(LHMP)
Study that assesses hazard vulnerabilities and identifies mitigation actions that jurisdictions will pursue to reduce the level of injury, property damage, and community disruption that might otherwise result from such events.

Local Responsibility
Area (LRA)
Lands in which the financial responsibility of preventing and suppressing fires is primarily the responsibility of the local jurisdiction.

Lowest adjacent
grade (LAG)
Elevation of the lowest natural or re-graded ground surface, or structural fill, that abuts the walls of a building. See Highest adjacent grade.

Lowest floor Under the NFIP, the lowest floor of the lowest enclosed area (including basement) of a structure.

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Lowest horizontal
structural member
In an elevated building, the lowest beam, joist, or other horizontal member that supports the building. Grade beams installed to support vertical foundation members where they enter the ground are not considered lowest horizontal structural members.

Ma Millions of years before present.

Macroburst
A strong downdraft over 2.5 miles in diameter that can cause damaging winds lasting 5 to 20 minutes. Formed by an area of significantly raincooled air that after hitting ground levels spreads out in all directions.

Magnitude
A measure of the strength of a hazard event. The magnitude (also referred to as severity) of a given hazard event is usually determined using technical measures specific to the hazard.

Main shock
The biggest earthquake in a sequence of earthquakes that occur fairly close in time and space. Smaller shocks before the main shock are called foreshocks; smaller shocks that occur after the main shock are called aftershocks.

Major earthquake
Capable of widespread, heavy damage up to 50+ miles from epicenter; generally near magnitude range 6.5 to 7.0 or greater, but can be less, depending on rupture mechanism, depth of earthquake, location relative to urban centers, etc.

Manufactured home
Under the National Flood Insurance Program, a structure, transportable in one or more sections, which is built on a permanent chassis and is designed for use with or without a permanent foundation when attached to the required utilities. The term “manufactured home” does not include a “recreational vehicle.”
Marsh Wetland dominated by herbaceous or non-woody plants often developing in shallow ponds or depressions, river margins, tidal areas, and estuaries.

Masonry Built-up construction of combination of building units or materials of clay, shale, concrete, glass, gypsum, stone, or other
Mass casualty Incident in which the number of victims exceeds the capability of the emergency management system to manage the incident effectively.

Material Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS) See Safety Data Sheet (SDS)
Maximum Considered
Earthquake (MCE)
Starting with the 2006 International Building Code, a probabilistic analysis used for seismic design that calculates the earthquake size that would generate ground motions with a 2% probability of being exceeded in 50 years (approximately equivalent to a 2,500-year return period).

Maximum
Contaminant Level
(MCL)
Federal drinking water standard: “the maximum permissible level of a contaminant in water which is delivered to any user of a public water system (Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 141.2).

Maximum Magnitude
Earthquake (Mmax)
The highest magnitude earthquake a fault is capable of producing based on physical limitations, such as the length of the fault or fault segment.

Maximum Probable
Earthquake (MPE)
The design size of the earthquake expected to occur within a time frame of interest, for example within 30 years or 100 years, depending on the purpose, lifetime or importance of the facility. Magnitude/frequency relationships are based on historic seismicity, fault slip rates, or mathematical models. The more critical the facility, the longer the time period considered.

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Mean sea level (MSL)
Average height of the sea for all stages of the tide, usually determined from hourly height observations over a 19-year period on an open coast or in adjacent waters having free access to the sea. See National Geodetic Vertical Datum.

Mediterranean
climate
The climate characteristic of the Mediterranean region and most of California, characterized by hot, dry summers, and cool, wet winters.

Metal roof panel Interlocking metal sheet having a minimum installed weather exposure of 3 square feet per sheet.

Metal roof shingle Interlocking metal sheet having an installed weather exposure less than 3 square feet per sheet.

Metamorphic rock
A rock whose original mineralogy, texture, or composition has been changed due to the effects of pressure, temperature, or the gain or loss of chemical components.

Microburst
A very localized zone of sinking air, less than 2.5 miles in diameter, producing damaging, straight-line, divergent winds at or near the ground surface lasting 2 to 5 minutes.

Microseismic
Pertaining to the faint earth tremors or small earthquakes (microseisms) that are part of the dominant background seismic noise signal on Earth caused by natural phenomena.

Mitigation Any action taken to reduce or permanently eliminate the long-term risk to life and property from natural hazards.

Mitigation directorate
Component of Federal Emergency Management Agency directly responsible for administering the flood hazard identification and floodplain management aspects of the National Flood Insurance Program.

Mitigation plan
A systematic evaluation of the nature and extent of vulnerability to the effects of natural and human-made hazards typically present in the region of study, including a description of actions to minimize future vulnerability to those hazards.

Mobile homes
Prefabricated housing units that are placed on isolated piers, jackstands, or masonry block foundations (usually without any positive anchorage).

Sometimes also referred to as manufactured homes.

Moderate earthquake
Capable of causing considerable to severe damage, generally in the range of Magnitude 5.0 to 6.0 (Modified Mercalli Intensity <VI), but highly dependent on rupture mechanism, depth of earthquake, and location relative to urban center, etc.

Modified Mercalli
Intensity
A qualitative measure of the size of an earthquake based on people’s description of how strongly the earthquake was felt, and the damage it caused to the built environment. The scale has 12 divisions, ranging from I (felt by only a very few people) to XII (total damage).

Moment magnitude
(seismic moment, Mw)
A measure of earthquake size that is based on the amount of energy released when a fault ruptures. Considered the most meaningful and thus preferred measure of earthquake size.

Monsoon
A seasonal reversing wind that is accompanied by precipitation. In North America, the monsoon occurs between late June and early September; starts in Mexico and spreads northward into Arizona, New Mexico, West Texas, Nevada, Utah, Colorado and eastern California.

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Mutual Aid
Agreement
A reciprocal aid agreement between two or more agencies that defines what resources each will provide to the other in response to certain predetermined types of emergencies. Mutual aid response is provided upon request.

National Fire
Protection
Association (NFPA)
A group that issues fire and safety standards for industry and emergency responders.

National Fire Incident
Reporting System
(NFIRS)
A database of fire incident reports compiled at the local fire department level. NFIRS was an outgrowth of the 1974 National Fire Prevention and Control Act, Public Law 93–498. The U.S. Fire Administration (USFA), an entity of the Department of Homeland Security, developed NFIRS as a means of assessing the nature and scope of the fire problem in the United States.

National Flood
Insurance Program
(NFIP)
Federal program created by Congress in 1968 that makes flood insurance available in communities that enact and enforce satisfactory floodplain management regulations.

National Geodetic
Vertical Datum of
1929 (NGVD)
Datum established in 1929 historically used as a basis for measuring flood, ground, and structural elevations, previously referred to as Sea Level Datum or Mean Sea Level. The Base Flood Elevations shown on most of the Flood Insurance Rate Maps issued by the Federal Emergency Management Agency are referenced to NGVD or, more recently, to the North American Vertical Datum.

National Weather
Service (NWS)
Prepares and issues flood, severe weather, and coastal storm warnings and can provide technical assistance to Federal and state entities in preparing weather and flood warning plans.

Natural attenuation
Reduction in mass or concentration of a compound in groundwater over time or distance from the source of constituents of concern due to naturally occurring physical, chemical, and biological processes, such as biodegradation, dispersion, dilution, adsorption, and volatilization.

Naturally decayresistant wood
Wood whose composition provides it with some measure of resistance to decay and attack by insects, without preservative treatment (e.g., heartwood of cedar, black locust, black walnut, and redwood).

Near-field earthquake
Used to describe a local earthquake within approximately a few fault zone widths of the causative fault which is characterized by high frequency waveforms that are destructive to above-ground utilities and short period structures (less than about two or three stories).

New construction
For the purpose of determining flood insurance rates under the National Flood Insurance Program, structures for which the start of construction commenced on or after the effective date of the initial Flood Insurance Rate Map or after December 31, 1974, whichever is later, including any subsequent improvements to such structures. (See Post-FIRM structure.) For floodplain management purposes, new construction means structures for which the start of construction commenced on or after the effective date of a floodplain management regulation adopted by a community and includes any subsequent improvements to such structures.