Cities Index.
Attachment VIII 4150 Point Eden Way Final EIR

Hayward City Council
February 15, 2022

Document
Attachment VIII 4150 Point Eden Way Final EIR
Meeting
February 15, 2022
Body
Hayward City Council
Pages
88
Original file
21.1 MB
Text extracted from the city's file for reading and search. Open the original on hayward.legistar1.com. That file is the official record.

415
0 Point Eden Way
Ind
ustrial Development Project
Fi
nal Environmental Impact Report
Re
sponse to Comments Document
SC
H# 2020110180
p
repared by
City of Ha
yward
777
B Street
Ha
yward, California 94541
Contact: Leigh
a Schmidt, Senior Planner
p
repared with the assistance of
Rincon
Consultants, Inc.
449 15th S
treet, Suite 303
Oak
land, California 94612
June 20
21 ATTACHMENT VIII

4 1
50 Point Eden Way

Industrial Development Project

Final

Environmental Impact Report

Response to Comments Document

SCH# 2020110180

prepared by

City of Hayward

777 B Street

Hayward, C
alifornia

94541

Contact: Leigha Schmidt, Senior Planner

prepared with the assistance of

Rincon Consultants, Inc.

449
15th Street, Suite 303

Oakland, California 94612

June

202
1 This report prepared on 50% recycled paper with 50% post -
consumer content
.

Final Environmental Impact Report

Response to C
o
mment
s Document

1 I
ntroduction

1. 1

Purpose of the Response to Comments Document

This Response to Comments (RTC) document provides response s

to public and agency
written
comments received by the
City of
Hayward

on the Draft Environmental Impact Report (EIR) for the
proposed
4150 Point Eden Way Industrial
Development Project

(project).

The Draft EIR identifies the
likely environmental consequences associated with development of the proposed project and recommends
mitigation measures to reduce potentially significant impacts.

In addition to providing
responses to public and agency
comments

received on the Draft EIR, this RTC document also makes revisions to the Draft EIR, as necessary, in response to those comments or to make clarifications to
information presented
in the Draft EIR.

This document, together with the Draft EIR, constitutes the Final EIR for the proposed projec
t.

1. 2

Environmental Review Process

Pursuant

to the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA), lead agencies are required to consult with public agencies having jurisdiction over a propose d project and to provide the general public
with an opportunity to comment on the Draft EIR.

On
November 10, 2020
, the City of
Hayward

circulated a Notice of Preparation (NOP)
and Initial
Study
for a 30
-
day period to identify
environmental issue areas pote
ntially affected

if the p
roposed
project

were to be implemented
.

The

NOP was mailed
or otherwise provided
to public agencies
,

the
State Clearinghouse, organizations, and individuals considered likely to be interested in the proposed project and its potenti
al impacts. Comments received by the City of
Hayward

on the NOP
and Initial Study
are
provided in Appendix A of the Draft EIR and are
summarized in Table
1 -
1 of the
Draft EIR
. These comments

were taken into account

during the preparation of the Draft EIR.

The Draft EIR was made available for public review on
April 9
, 20
2 1, and was distributed to local and
State agencies. Copies of the Notice of Availability of the Draft EIR were mailed to a list of interested partie
s, groups and public agencies, as well as property owners and occupants of neighboring and nearby properties. The Draft EIR and an announcement of its availability were posted electronically on the
City’s

website, and a paper copy was available for public
review at
City

Hall
.

The Notice of
Availability of the Draft EIR was also posted at the office of the Alameda

County Clerk
, and the Draft
EIR was available
for public review
at the
Hayward

Public Library
.

The 45
-
day CEQA public comment period began on
Apri
l 9

and ended on
May 24
, 20
2 1. The City of
Hayward

received
five

comment letters on the Draft EIR. Copies of written comments on the Draft EIR received during the comment period
, as well as responses to those comments,

are included in
Section
3 of this d
ocument.

1.3 Document Organization

This
RTC
document consists of the following sections:

1 City of Hayward

4150 Point Eden Way Industrial Development Project

Final Environmental Impact Report

Response to Comments D
ocument

Section

1: Introduction.

This
section

discusses the purpose and organization of this RTC
Document and the Final EIR, and summarizes the environmental review proces s for the
project.

Section

2 :

List of Commenters.

This
section

contains a list of the agencies

and
private groups
and
organizations
that submitted written comments during the public review period on the Draft EIR.

No c
omment
s

were
received from
individuals
.

Section

3: Comments and Responses.

This
section

contains reproductions of all comment
letters received on the Draft EIR. A written response for each CEQA -
related comment
received during the public review period is provided. Each response is keyed to the c
orresponding comment.

Section 4: Draft EIR Revisions.

Revisions

to the Draft EIR that are necessary in light of the
comments received and responses provided, or necessary to amplify or clarify material in the Draft EIR, are contained in this
section
. Und
erlined text represents language that has
been added to the Draft EIR; text with strikeout has been deleted from the Draft EIR.

2 Final Environmental Impact Report

Response to Comments Document

2 List of Commenters

This section
presents a list of comment letters received during the public review period and describes the organization of the letters and comments that are provided in Section 3 ,
Comments
and Responses
, of this document.

2.1 Organization of Comment
Letters and Responses

The
five

letters are presented in the following order: State agencies ( 1 ), regional and local public
agencies (
2 ), and private groups and organizations (
2 ).

No
federal agencies and no

i
ndividuals
provided written comments
.

Each commen
t letter has been numbered sequentially and each
separate issue raised by the commenter has been assigned a number. The responses to each comment identify first the number of the comment letter, and then the number assigned to each issue. For example, Resp
onse 1.1 indicates that the response is for the first issue raised in comment Letter

1. 2.2

Comments Received

The following letters were submitted to the City during the public review period :

Letter Number and Commenter

Agency/ Group/ Organization

Page

Number

State

Agencies

1. Mark Leong
,
District Branch Chief

California Department of Transportation

5 Regional and
Local

Agencies

2. Laura J. Hidas
, Manager

of Water Resources

Alameda County Water District

10 3.

Chantal Alatorre
,
Senior

Planner

East Bay Regional Park District

14 Private Groups and Organizations

4. Carin High, Committee Co
-
Chair

Citizens Committee to
Complete the
Refuge

16 5.

Paige Fennie

Lozeau Drury LLP

80 Final Environmental Impact Report

Response to C
o
mment
s Document

3 Comments and Responses

Written responses to each comment letter received on the Draft EIR are provided in this section
. All
letters received during the public review period on the Draft EIR are provided in their entirety.

Please note that text within individual letters that has not been numbered does not specifically raise
environmental issues nor relate directly to the adequacy of the information or analysis within the Draft EIR, and therefore no comment is enumerated or response required, p
ursuant to

State
CEQA

Guidelines

Secti
on
s

15088 and
15132.

Revisions to the Draft EIR necessary in light of the comments received and responses provided, or necessary to amplify or clarify material in the Draft EIR, are included in the responses.

Underlined

text represents language that has been added to the Draft EIR; text with strikeout

has been deleted
from the Draft EIR.

All revisions are then compiled in the order in which they would appear in the Draft EIR (by page number) in Section
4,
Draft EIR

Tex
t Revisions
, of this document. Page numbers
cited in this section correspond to the page numbers of the Draft EIR. When mitigation measure language has been changed, it has been changed in both the text

on the stated Draft EIR page

and

the summary table (T
able 1) in the Executive Summary of the Draft EIR.

4 “Provide a safe, sustainable, integrated and efficient transportation system to enhance California’s economy and livability”

STATE OF CALIFORNIA
—

CALIFORNIA STATE TRANSPORTATION AGENC Y

GAVIN NEWSOM, Gove rnor

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

DISTRICT 4

OFFICE OF TRANSIT AND COMMUNITY PLANNING

P.O. BOX 23660, MS
-
10D

OAKLAND, CA 94623
-
0660

www.dot.ca.gov

Making Conservation

a California Way of Life.

May 24,
2021

SCH #:

202
0110180

GTS #:

04 -
ALA
-
2019
-
00581

GTS ID:

14875

Co/Rt/Pm:

AL/
92 /4.012

Leigha Schmidt, Senior Planner

Cit
y of Hayward

777 B
Street

Hayward, CA 94541

Re:
4150 Point Eden Way

+
Draft Environmental Impact Report (DEIR)

Dear

Leigha Schmidt
:

Thank you for including the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) in the environmental review process for the
4150 Point Eden Way

project
. We are
committed to ensuring that impacts to the State’s multimodal transportation system and to our natural environment are identified and mitigated to support a safe, sustainable, integrated and efficient transportation system. The following c
omments are based on our review of the
Ma
y

2021
DEIR.

Project Understanding

The proposed project is located at 4150 Point Eden Way in Hayward , adjacent
to
State Route (
SR
)
-
92 . The site is divided into the eastern component and western component. The proposed
project consists of a new industrial building
on the eastern component of the project site and establishing a wetland preserve on the western component. The building would be used to house U -
Haul storage pods, materials and trucks and their regional corpor ate offices. The
San Francisco Bay Trail is located on the eastern edge of the eastern component of the project site. The proposed project includes a land swap for East Bay Regional Park District to relocate the Bay Trail from the current location along th
e eastern property line to meander along the southern property line and then to turn north to run along the western property line. The proposed project also includes establishing a preserve on the western component of the project site, which are currently
characterized by salt evaporation ponds from
the former salt production operation on the project site that would remain in place.

5 Leigha Schmidt, Senior Planner

May 24
, 2021

Page
2 “Provide a safe, sustainable, integrated and efficient transportation system to enhance California’s economy and livability”

Lead Agency

As the Lead Agency, the
City

of
Hayward

is responsible for all project mitigation,
including any needed improvem
ents to
SR
-

92. The project’s fair share
contribution, financing, scheduling, implementation responsibilities and lead agency monitoring should be fully discussed for all proposed mitigation measures.

Construction
-
Related Impacts

Potential impacts to the State Right
-
of
-
Way (ROW) from project
-
related
temporary access points should be analyzed. Mitigation for significant impacts due to construction and noise should be identified. Project work that require s
movement of oversized or excessive load vehicles on state roadways requires a transportation permit that is issued by Caltrans. To apply, visit:
https://dot.ca.gov/programs/traffic
-
operations/transportation
-
permits.

Prior to construction, coordination ma
y be required with Caltrans to develop a
Transportation Management Plan (TMP) to reduce construction traffic impacts to
SR
-
92 .

Encroachment Permit

Please be advised that any permanent work or temporary traffic control that encroaches onto the ROW require
s a Caltrans
-
issued encroachment permit. As
part of the encroachment permit submittal process, you may be asked by the Office of Encroachment Permits to submit a completed encroachment permit application package, digital set of plans clearly delineating th e State ROW,
digital copy of signed, dated and stamped (include stamp expiration date) traffic control plans, this comment letter, your response to the comment letter, and where applicable, the following items: new or amended Maintenance Agreement (MA), ap
proved Design Standard Decision Document (DSDD),
approved encroachment exception request, and/or airspace lease agreement.

Your application package may be emailed to
[email protected]
.

To download the perm
it application and to obtain more information on all
required documentation, visit
https://dot.ca.gov/programs/traffic
-
operations/ep/applications
.

Equitable Access

If any Ca
ltrans facilities are impacted by the project, those facilities must meet American Disabilities Act (ADA) Standards after project completion. As well, the project must maintain bicycle and pedestrian access during construction. These access considerations
support Caltrans’ equity mission to provide a safe,
sustainable, and equitable transportation network for all users.

6 Leigha Schmidt, Senior Planner

May 24
, 2021

Page
3 “Provide a safe, sustainable, integrated and efficient transportation system to enhance California’s economy and livability”

Thank
y
ou

again for including Caltrans in the environmental review process.

Should you have any questions regarding this letter, please c ontact
Laurel Sears

at

[email protected]
. Additionally, for future notifications and requests for review of new projects, please contact
LDIGR
-
[email protected]
.

Sincerely,

MARK LEONG

District Branch Chief

Local Development
-

Intergovernmental Review

c: State Clearinghouse

7 Final Environmental Impact Report

Res
ponse to Comments Document

Letter
1 COMMENTER:

Mark Leon
g
,
District Branch Chief
,
California Department of Transportation

DATE:

May 24
, 20
2 1

Response
1 .1

The commenter
states
their understanding of the proposed project in

the form of

a summary
.

The commenter
’
s understanding of the proposed project is an accura
te summary of the project as
proposed and evaluated in the Draft EIR
.

This comment is noted and does not require revisions to the Draft EIR.

Response
1 .
2 The commenter
states that as the lead agency, the City of Hayward is responsible for project mitigation, including improve
ment
s to State Route 92
, and that

m
itigation measures should be
described in full, including project fair
-
share contributions, scheduling, implementation, and
monitoring.

CEQA requires lead agencies to mitigate or avoid potenti ally significant environmental impacts to
the extent feasible. Pursuant to CEQA Guidelines Section 15064.3(a), except for certain roadway capacity projects, a project’s effects on automobile delay shall not constitute a significant environmental effect. Ac
cordingly, the Draft EIR does not include mitigation requiring improvements to State Route 92 because there would be no CEQA -
related significant impacts to
State Route 92. Table ES
-
1 in the Executive Summary of the Draft EIR lists the required project miti
gation measures. As shown in Table ES
-
1, there are no mitigation measures pertaining to State Route 92.

There are also no project mitigation measures containing fair -
share contribution
requirements.

CEQA Guidelines Section 15097 requires the City, in its r ole as lead agency, to adopt a Mitigation
Monitoring and/or Reporting Program (MMRP). Accordingly, the City must adopt a MMRP for the project, if the Final EIR is certified and the project approved. The MMRP will list each requirement mitigation measure co
ntained in either the Draft EIR or the Initial Study, as well as the timing for implementation, monitoring requirements, and reporting requirements, as applicable. The MMRP will also identify the agency, organization or otherwise, responsible for carrying out the identified
mitigation measures.

This comment is noted and does not require revisions to the Draft EIR.

Response
1 .
3 The commenter
states
an opinion
that potential impacts of temporary access points from State right
-
of
-
way should be analyzed, and mi
tigation for significant impacts due to construction and noise should be identified. The commenter also states that use of state roadways by oversized or excessive load vehicles

for project construction requires a permit.

The proposed project does

not

incl
ude temporary access to the project site from State right -
of
-
way,
such as the right
-
of
-
way for State Route 92.

Construction access, as well as access during project
operation, would be from Point Eden Way, which is not a State roadway. While temporary acce ss
points from State Route 92 would not be required for construction, construction equipment would 8 City of Hayward

4150 Point Eden Way Industrial Development Project

Final Environmental Impact Report

Response to Comments D
ocument

be hauled or delivered to the project site on the surrounding roadway network, including State Route 92. The project applicant would be responsible for obtai ning all regulatory permits and
approvals, including permits from Caltrans for the use of oversized or excessive load vehicles on State roadways.

Both the Initial Study and the Draft EIR evaluate the potential impacts of the entire proposed project, includ
ing project construction and project operation.

The analysis in the Initial Study and
Draft EIR identified both less
-
than
-
significant and significant
-
but
-
mitigable impacts related to
project construction. For example,
noise impacts of project construction
are analyzed on pages 83
through 90 of the Initial Study, which is included as Appendix A to the Draft EIR. As described therein, there would be no significant noise impacts resulting from project construction. Because noise impacts would be less than sign
ificant, no mitigation is required.

Therefore,
as construction impacts are analyzed and mitigated to the extent feasible and applicant in the Draft EIR,
no additional revisions to the Draft EIR are necessary in response to this comment.

Response
1 .
4 The co
mmenter
states that
coordination with Caltrans to develop a Transportation Management Plan may be required to reduce construction traffic impacts to State Route 92 .

This comment does not pertain to the Draft EIR or CEQA. Therefore, no additional revisions to the
Draft EIR are necessary in response to this comment. However, for informative purposes, as stated in Response 1.3 above, the project applicant would be responsible for obtaining all regulatory permits and approvals, including permits and approvals f rom Caltrans.

Response
1 .
5 The commenter
states that project traffic control measures within State roadway right -
of
-
way
require a Caltrans
-
issued encroachment permit.

This comment does not pertain to the Draft EIR or CEQA. Therefore, no additional revisions to the
Draft EIR are necessary in response to this comment. However, for informative purposes, as stated in Response 1.3 above, the project applicant would be responsible for obtaining all regulatory permits and approvals, including pe
rmits and approvals from Caltrans.

Response
1 .
6 The commenter
states that Caltrans facilities impacted by the project must meet American with Disabilities Act (ADA) standards after project completion, and bicycle and pedestrian access must be maintained du
ring construction.

The proposed project does not include modifications or changes to Caltrans facilities. The project is in proximity to State Route 92 and a land parcel known as Caltrans Pond. However, as described in Section 2,
Project Description
, of th
e EIR, no work or project activities are proposed within the State Route 92 right
-
of
-
way or on the Caltrans Pond property.

Therefore, no pedestrian or bicycle access
on Caltrans facilities would be affected by the proposed project.

This comment is noted an
d does
not require revisions to the Draft EIR.

9 D

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S
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L
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A
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:

https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/rwqcb2/water_issues/programs/groundwater/reuse_guidance -
oct06.pdf
.

O
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r
.

2.2 2.3

2.4 11

Final Environmental Impact Report

Res
ponse to Comments Document

Letter
2 COMMENTER:

Laura J. Hidas
,
Manager of Water Resources
,
Alameda County Water District

DATE:

May 2
0 , 2021

Response
2 .1

The commenter
quotes some of the text from Mitigation Measure HAZ
-
2a on pages 4.3
-
13 and 4.3
-
14 of the Draft EIR
and asks that the mitigation measure be revised to require coordination with the San Francisco Regional Water Quality Control Board and the Alameda County Wa ter District
.

In response to this comment,
page
s

4.3 -
1 4

and

4.3 -
15 of the Draft EIR
are

revised

as follows
.

…
In the event that disturbed soil appears to contain contaminants of potential concern (COPCs), such as odors
, staining, and/or discoloration, work should halt in that area and an environmental professional (EP), such as a geologist, engineer, industrial hygienist, or environmental health specialist with expertise in these matters, shall be called to the site to oversee the work and determine safe construction and soil handling procedures.

Additionally, if contaminated soil is encountered, the project applicant shall coordinate with the San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board and the Alameda County Water
District to determine adequate and proper remediation and handling actions.

…
If groundwater is encountered within the former remediation area during construction of the
project, as shown on Figure 4 of the RMP, an EP shall be called to the site to de termine
safe handling procedures. The groundwater shall be pumped into appropriate containers and samples shall be obtained for chemical analysis of the COPCs in accordance with a site sampling plan and the requirements of the waste disposal facility to wh ich the material is
sent.

The project applicant shall coordinate with the Regional Water Quality Control Board and the Alameda County Water District if possible contaminated groundwater is encountered
.

If water sample analytical results indicate the water
is free of all detectable
concentrations of COPCs, such water can be re
-
used at the site if deemed appropriate by
Alameda County and the RWQCB. If water sample analytical results indicate the water contains concentrations of COPCs above appropriate RWQCB s creening levels, such water
shall not be re
-
used at the site. The contractor and the EP shall elect to: (a) treat the groundwater on
-
site to render it free of detectable concentrations of COPCs (e.g. by activated carbon filtration); or, (b) transport the g
roundwater to a local treatment or
disposal facility for appropriate handling
…

No additional revisions to the Draft EIR are necessary in response to this comment.

Response
2 .
2 The commenter
recommends applying the San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality C ontrol Board
document titled
Characterization and Reuse of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Impacted Soil and Inert Waste

for the reuse of soil excavated on
-
site. Additionally, the commenter states

that

a soil
management plan should be prepared and submitted to the R egional Water Quality Control Board.

In response to this comment,
Mitigation Measure HAZ
-
2a on
page

4.3 -
14 of the Draft EIR
is
revised

as follows.

12 City of Hayward

4150 Point Eden Way Industrial Development Project

Final Environmental Impact Report

Response to Comments D
ocument

Soil excavated from deeper than 5
-
feet below ground surface in the restricted area shall
only be reused on
-
site as backfill after sampling and analysis soil proves the soil is acceptable to remain on site. Commercial ESLs
or concentration limits established in the
San
Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board document titled Characterization and
Reuse
of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Impacted Soil and Inert Waste
(2006), whichever is lowest,

shall be used as the threshold to determine if soils may remain on site or require off -
site
disposal. All appropriate regulatory sampling methods, holding times, and detection limits
shall be followed.

No additional revisions to the Draft EIR are necessary in response to this comment.

Response
2 .
3 The commenter
states their appreciation of the Draft EIR including Mitigation Measure HAZ -
2a and
HAZ
-
2b.

This comment is no
ted and does not require revisions to the Draft EIR
.

Response
2 .
4 The commenter
provides contact information for the Alameda County Water District.

This comment is noted and does not require revisions to the Draft EIR .

13 May 2
4 , 2021

Leigha Schmidt, Senior Planner

City of Hayward, Planning

777 B Street

Hayward, CA 94541

RE: Comments on U
-
Haul Development
-

4150 Point Eden Way

Dear Ms. Leigha Schmidt,

East Bay Regional Park District (Park
District) appreciates the opportunity to comment on the U -
Haul
Development project at 4150 Point Eden Way.

In addition to the letters previously submitted on February 11, 2020 and December 14, 2020, the Park District would like to submit the following comm ents:

•

Alternative Site #2: 3636 Enterprise Avenue is in close proximity to

the Park District’s

ongoing
restoration efforts at Hayward Marsh.

If this site is selected, the Park District would like the opportunity to provide input on design elements.

•

Figure 2.4 land use designations shows the new parkland owned by the Park District as Baylands which is correct. Figure 2.5 Zoning Districts show
s that same area zoned as industrial park; this appears to be inconsistent and outdated.

T
hank you for considering these comments and concerns.

The Park D
i
strict
continues to
look

f
orward to
being involved in

the design

review and final approval of
land transfer
to relocate

the SF Bay Trail.

Please
reach out to Chantal Alatorre, Senior Planner at
calatorre@
ebparks.org

to discuss.

Best Regards,

Chantal Alatorre

Chantal Alatorre

Senior Planner

Cc: Brian Holt, Chief of Planning & GIS

Sean Dougan, Trails Development Program Manager

14 Final Environmental Impact Report

Res
ponse to Comments Document

Letter
3 COMMENTER:

Chantal
Alatorre
,
Senior Planner
,
East Bay Regional Park District

DATE:

May 24, 2021

Response
3 .1

The commenter
states
that the alternate site analyzed in the Draft EIR as Alternative 2 is in proximity to the East Bay Regional Park District’s (EBRPD) marsh restor ation efforts and would like
for the City to coordinate with the EBRPD
if
Alternative 2 is selected.

This comment does not question the

analysis or conclusions of the

Draft EIR. Therefore, no revisions
to the Draft EIR are necessary in response to this com
ment. However, for informative purposes, the
alternate site analyzed as Alternative 2 is a property located at 3636 Enterprise Avenue, as described on
P
age 6
-
4 of the Draft EIR. The commenter does not specify the exact location of the EBRPD’s marsh restora
tion efforts. However, based on aerial photography, there appears to be marshland within approximately 200 feet of the alternate site boundary , as well as potentially on
the alternate site
. Given this proximity, the City will
coordinate with

the EBRPD shou
ld Alternative 2
be selected and proceed.

Response
3 .
2 The commenter
states
that
parkland acquired by the EBRPD is shown as Industrial Park zoning district on Figure 2
-
5 of the Draft EIR, and that Industrial Park

zoning

is outdated information.

Figure 2
-
5 of
P
age 2
-
8 of the Draft EIR shows the current zoning districts for the project site and the surrounding area, generally 500 to 2,000 feet away, depending on direction. The parkland recently acquired by the EBRPD is nor
th of the project site and is shown as Industrial Park zoning district on Figure 2
-
5, as the commenter correctly states. However, the zoning districts shown on Figure 2 -
5 are
current and are not outdated

according to the City’s GIS webmap (
http://webmap.hayward
-
ca.gov/
)
.

The current and correct zoning districts are shown on Figure 2 -

5. Therefore, no revisions to
the Draft EIR are necessary in response to this comment.

While revisions to the Draft EIR are not nec
essary in response to this comment, it should be noted
that the General Plan land use designation for the EBRPD parkland property is Baylands, as shown on Figure 2
-
4 on
P
age 2
-
7 of the Draft EIR.

Response
3 .
3 The commenter states that the EBRPD looks forw
ard to being involved in the project and land
transfer to relocate the San Francisco Bay Trail.

The City will continue to coordinate with the EBRPD. As described on page 2 -
14 of the Draft EIR, the
EBRPD will be responsible for approving the proposed land e xchange to relocate the San Francisco
Bay Trail.

15 C
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r
o
p
o
s
e
d

geotech
n
i
c
a
l

mitigation

a
c
t
i
v
i
t
i
e
s

o
n

t
h
e

s
i
t
e
.

T
h
e

D
E
I
R

f
a
i
l
s

t
o

a
d
e
q
u
a
t
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l
y

d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e

h
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w

m
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r
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t
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n

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f

b
e
n
z
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e

c
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t
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m
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n
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d

g
r
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n
d
w
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r

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e

m
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d

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d

h
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w

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f

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t
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m
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n
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t
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o

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e

N
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s

C
o
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e

G
r
o
u
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d
w
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r

B
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s
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n

a
n
d

o
t
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r

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d
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r
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l
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y
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f

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r
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d
w
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r

w
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l

b
e

p
r
e
v
e
n
t
e
d
.

H
o
w

d
o
e
s

o
n
e

“
p
r
e
v
e
n
t

c
r
e
a
t
i
n
g

a

p
r
e
f
e
r
e
n
t
i
a
l

p
a
t
h
w
a
y
?
”

W
o
u
l
d

t
h
e

g
e
o
t
e
c
h
n
i
c
a
l

m
i
t
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g
a
t
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o
n

m
e
a
s
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r
e

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f

v
i
b
r
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t
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n

a
n
d

c
o
m
p
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t
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n

r
e
s
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l
t

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n

m
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g
r
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n

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f

t
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e

c
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t
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m
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n
a
t
e
d

g
r
o
u
n
d
w
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t
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r

p
l
u
m
e
?

H
a
s

t
h
e

S
a
n

F
r
a
n
c
i
s
c
o

B
a
y

R
e
g
i
o
n
a
l

W
a
t
e
r

Q
u
a
l
i
t
y

C
o
n
t
r
o
l

B
o
a
r
d

(
R
W
Q
C
B
)

b
e
en

c
o
n
s
u
l
t
e
d

r
e
g
a
r
d
i
n
g

t
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e

p
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p
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s
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d

g
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o
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e
c
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n
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c
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l

m
i
t
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g
a
t
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n

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
?

C
l
o
s
e

c
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

p
r
o
p
o
s
e
d

u
s
e

o
f

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

p
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r

d
e
s
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g
n

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n
d

c
o
n
s
t
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c
t
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n

s
h
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l
d

o
c
c
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r

w
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t
h

t
h
e

R
W
Q
C
B

a
n
d

A
l
a
m
e
d
a

W
a
t
e
r

C
o
n
t
r
o
l

D
i
s
t
r
i
c
t

(
A
W
C
D
)
.

A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l

m
i
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
n

m
e
a
s
u
r
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s

t
o

p
r
e
v
e
n
t

m
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

b
e
n
z
e
n
e

c
o
n
t
a
m
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n
a
t
i
o
n
s

s
e
e
m

n
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
y
.

M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
s

N
o
t

E
v
i
d
e
n
t

i
n

t
h
e

D
E
I
R
:

I
t

i
s
n
’
t

p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e

t
o

d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
e

w
h
e
t
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r

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e

p
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p
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d

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l
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v
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t
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s

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e

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l
o
c
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d

B
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y

T
r
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l

h
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v
e

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n

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v
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d
.

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t

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s

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l
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o

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n
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e
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r

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e

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d

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a

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a
t

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s

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n

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n
c
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r
p
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r
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t
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d

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n
t
o

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h
e

p
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j
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t

d
e
s
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g
n
.

T
h
i
s

i
n
f
o
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m
a
t
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o
n

s
h
o
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l
d

b
e

c
l
e
a
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l
y

s
t
a
t
e
d

i
n

t
h
e

D
E
I
R
.

T
h
e

D
E
I
R

n
o
t
e
s

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h
a
t

t
h
e

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l
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v
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t
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n

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f

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e

b
u
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l
d
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g

p
a
d

w
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l

b
e

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n
c
r
e
a
s
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d

a
t

m
i
n
i
m
u
m

b
y

5 ’
?

[
D
E
I
R
,

p
a
g
e

E
S
-
1 2
]

W
e

r
e
q
u
e
s
t
e
d

a
n
d

h
a
v
e

b
e
e
n

p
r
o
v
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d
e
d

a

t
o
p
o
g
r
a
p
h
i
c

m
a
p

o
f

e
x
i
s
t
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g

c
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
,

b
u
t

h
a
v
e

n
o
t

b
e
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n

a
b
l
e

t
o

d
i
s
c
e
r
n

w
h
a
t

t
h
e

p
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o
p
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s
e
d

f
i
n
a
l

e
l
e
v
a
t
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n

o
f

t
h
e

d
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v
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p
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d

s
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t
e

w
o
u
l
d

b
e
.

T
h
e

D
E
I
R

s
h
o
u
l
d

p
r
o
v
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d
e

a

p
l
a
n

v
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w

t
h
a
t

c
l
e
a
r
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y

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n
d
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c
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s

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e

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x
i
s
t
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g

s
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t
e

c
o
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d
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t
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o
n
s
,

t
h
e

p
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p
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d

s
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t
e

c
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n
d
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t
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o
n
s

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d

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d

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n

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f

t
h
e

r
e
l
o
c
a
t
e
d

B
a
y

T
r
a
i
l
.

Conclusion:

B
a
s
e
d

u
p
o
n

o
u
r

r
e
v
i
e
w

o
f

t
h
e

D
E
I
R
,

w
e

f
i
n
d

t
h
e

P
r
o
j
e
c
t

O
b
j
e
c
t
i
v
e
s

a
n
d

A
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
v
e
s

A
n
a
l
y
s
i
s

a
r
e

f
l
a
w
e
d

a
n
d

t
h
e

B
i
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l

M
i
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
n

M
e
a
s
u
r
e
s

d
o

n
o
t

a
d
e
q
u
a
t
e
l
y

a
d
d
r
e
s
s

t
h
e

i
m
p
a
c
t
s

o
f

t
h
e

p
r
o
j
e
c
t

o
n

s
p
e
c
i
a
l

s
t
a
t
u
s

s
p
e
c
i
e
s

a
n
d

s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
e

h
a
b
i
t
a
t
s
.

W
h
i
l
e

w
e

s
u
p
p
o
r
t

c
o
n
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

l
a
n
d
s

l
o
c
a
t
e
d

c
l
o
s
e

t
o

t
h
e

e
d
g
e
s

o
f

t
h
e

B
a
y

t
h
a
t

c
u
r
r
e
n
t
l
y

p
r
o
v
i
d
e

s
o
m
e

h
a
b
i
t
a
t

v
a
l
u
e
s

a
n
d

c
o
u
l
d

p
r
o
v
i
d
e

t
i
d
a
l

w
e
t
l
a
n
d

m
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

s
p
a
c
e

a
n
d

s
e
a

l
e
v
e
l

r
i
s
e

r
e
s
i
l
i
e
n
c
e
,

t
h
e

l
a
c
k

o
f

a
n
y

m
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t

p
l
a
n

f
o
r

t
h
e

3 2
-
a
c
r
e

W
e
s
t
e
r
n

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

r
a
i
s
e
s

c
o
n
c
e
r
n
s

a
b
o
u
t

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

a
d
v
e
r
s
e

i
m
p
a
c
t
s

t
o

t
h
e

a
d
j
a
c
e
n
t

E
d
e
n

L
a
n
d
i
n
g

E
c
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l

R
e
s
e
r
v
e

a
n
d

t
h
e

r
e
s
o
u
r
c
e
s

o
f

t
h
e

B
a
y
.

21 C
C
C
R

C
o
m
m
e
n
t
s

U
H
a
u
l

D
E
I
R

5 -
24 -
21 P
a
g
e

7 o
f

7 B
a
s
e
d

u
p
o
n

t
h
e

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

p
r
o
v
i
d
e
d
,

w
e

u
r
g
e

t
h
e

s
e
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

A
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
v
e

2 .

I
t

a
p
p
e
a
r
s

t
o

b
e

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
a
l
l
y

s
u
p
e
r
i
o
r

a
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
v
e

a
n
d

a
v
o
i
d
s

t
h
e

f
u
t
u
r
e

l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

p
l
a
c
i
n
g

n
e
w

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

i
n

h
a
r
m
’
s

w
a
y
.

P
l
a
c
i
n
g

n
e
w

i
n
f
r
a
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e

a
n
d

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

i
n

a
r
e
a
s

t
h
a
t

w
i
l
l

b
e

s
u
b
j
e
c
t

t
o

i
n
u
n
d
a
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

s
e
a

l
e
v
e
l

r
i
s
e

i
s

f
o
l
l
y
.

W
e

mus
t

a
d
m
i
t

w
e

w
e
r
e

p
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
r
l
y

s
u
r
p
r
i
s
e
d

a
n
d

extremely

d
i
s
a
p
p
o
i
n
t
e
d

b
y

t
h
e

p
r
o
p
o
s
e
d

p
r
o
j
e
c
t
.

T
h
e

C
i
t
y

o
f

H
a
y
w
a
r
d

h
a
s

s
e
t

a

g
o
o
d

e
x
a
m
p
l
e

o
f

p
l
a
n
n
i
n
g

f
o
r

fu
t
u
r
e

s
e
a

l
e
v
e
l

r
i
s
e

r
e
s
i
l
i
e
n
c
e

t
o

t
h
e

n
o
r
t
h

o
f

t
h
e

S
a
n

M
a
t
e
o

B
r
i
d
g
e

through

t
h
e

H
a
y
w
a
r
d

S
h
o
r
e
l
i
n
e

M
a
s
t
e
r

P
l
a
n
.

S
a
d
l
y
,

t
h
i
s

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

p
r
o
j
e
c
t

p
r
o
p
o
s
a
l

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
s

p
l
a
n
n
i
n
g

e
r
r
o
r
s

o
f

t
h
e

p
a
s
t
,

b
y

fail
ing

t
o

c
o
n
s
i
d
e
r

t
h
e

i
m
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

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f

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r
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a
t
i
n
g

d
e
v
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l
o
p
m
e
n
t

o
n

f
i
l
l

p
a
d
s

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n

f
u
t
u
r
e

s
e
a

l
e
v
e
l

r
i
s
e

i
n
u
n
d
a
t
i
o
n

z
o
n
e
s

o
n

neigh
bo
r
i
n
g

c
o
m
m
u
n
i
t
i
e
s
.

A
s

s
e
a

l
e
v
e
l
s

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e

t
o

r
i
s
e
,

r
e
m
o
v
i
n
g

a
c
c
o
m
m
o
d
a
t
i
o
n

s
p
a
c
e

b
y

f
i
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
d
g
e
s

o
f

t
h
e

B
a
y

w
i
l
l

o
n
l
y

f
o
r
c
e

t
h
e

r
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22 UCLA
UCLA Journal of Environmental Law and Policy
Title
Incorporating Analysis of Sea-Level Rise Into Environmental Impact

Reports
Permalink
https://escholarship.org/uc/item/44h558wz
Journal
UCLA Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, 37(2)
Author
Warfield, Emily
Publication Date
2019
eScholarship.org
Powered by the
California Digital Library
University of California
23 259
Incorporating Analysis of Sea-Level Rise Into
Environmental Impact Reports
Emily Warfield
About the Author
J.D. Candidate, UCLA School of Law, May 2020. All views expressed herein are those of the author.

Table of Contents
Introduction

...................................................................................................... 259
I.

Sea-Level Rise: Projections, Effects, and Damage

Control Tools

.......................................................................................... 260
A
.

CEQA Can Help Local Governments Evaluate the Risks
of Sea-Level Rise

................................................................................ 263
II.

The Current Case Law and OPR Guidelines

....................................
263
A
.

Sea-Level Rise in the Public Resources Code and the OPR Guidelines

............................................................................................ 264
B
.

Ballona Wetlands and CBIA vs. BAAQMD

....................................
265

1. Sea-Level Rise Analysis is Not Reverse-CEQA

.......................
267
III.

Incorporating Analysis of Sea-Level Rise Into EIRs
......................
268
A
.

Analysis of Sea-level Rise Effects on Resources Listed

in Appendix G of the OPR Guidelines

.............................................
270

1. Mineral Resources

........................................................................ 270

2. Biological Resources
..................................................................... 272

3. The Public Trust

............................................................................. 272

4. The
Sierra Club v. City of Oxnard
Approach

.............................
275
Conclusion

......................................................................................................... 276
Introduction
The California Environmental Quality Act
1 is a powerful tool both
for understanding and for mitigating the risk of environmental degradation because it mandates full public disclosure of the significant effects that a future development will have on the environment.
2 However, confusing judicial treat
-
ment on the issue of sea-level rise analysis in EIRs has resulted in inconsistency in analysis. The judiciary has suggested in dicta that analysis of sea-level rise

1. Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§§ 21001–21189.

2. Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§ 21002.1.
© 2019 Emily Warfield
259
24 260

JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW

V37:2
is “reverse-CEQA,” and not required. This muddled dicta is in conflict with CEQAs policy of complete and good faith disclosure in EIRs. Perhaps due to the conflict between CEQAs principle of full disclosure of environmental effects, and the well accepted prohibition on “reverse-CEQA” analysis, some EIRs for projects in coastal areas include analysis of sea-level rise in environ -
mental impact reports, and some do not.
3 This Comment argues that, regardless of the ambiguity in the law and inconsistency in its application, analysis of sea-level rise is in fact required in an environmental impact report in order to properly forecast the significant effects of a project on the environment. When dynamic coastlines continue to rise and cause “coastal squeeze,” development can significantly interfere with tideland ecosystems, wetlands, and coastal processes like beach migration, affecting mineral resources, biological resources, and resources that implicate the public trust doctrine. While the effects of sea-level rise may be analyzed in an EIR under resource categories listed in Appendix G of the CEQA Guide -
lines, an independent analysis of sea-level rise should be included in an EIR to determine at what point the project could threaten or deplete coastal resources.

Part
I
of this Comment will provide an overview of how sea-level rise affects coastal resources, and the role that CEQA can play in mitigating these affects. Part
II
will detail what an EIR currently requires with regard to sea- level rise analysis and forecasting. Part
III
will then argue that the paradigm
created by the judiciary and inconsistently adhered to by practitioners fails to account for the science behind coastal dynamics, and that a lead agency should always consider sea-level rise over time in an EIR to sufficiently protect coastal environmental resources.

I.

Sea-Level Rise: Projections, Effects, and Damage
Control Tools
Our coastline is dynamic, in that it changes seasonally. However, anthro -
pogenic climate change has seen the coastline move more consistently inland.

Where development interferes with this natural process, sea-level rise can

3. Often, where a local government has commissioned the EIR, there is analysis of sea-level rise. However, where the local government is the lead agency in approving a project that will developed by private entity, the EIR lacks sea-level rise analysis.

Compare

Monterey Bay Sanctuary Scenic Trail Network Master Plan Final Environmental Impact Report
, Santa Cruz County Regional Transportation Commission (November 7 , 2013), 111, available at https://sccrtc.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/MBSST-Network- Master-Plan-FEIR.pdf [https://perma.cc/SUJ9-CT58],
with
Final Environmental Impact
Report, South of Tioga (May 9, 2018) https://www.sandcity.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/ South-of-Tioga-Project_FEIR.pdf [https://perma.cc/M22M-AU3J]. 25 2019

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threaten expensive coastal infrastructure
4 and deplete coastal environmental
resources, thereby endangering coastal ecosystems.
5 Where rising seas meet development instead of cliffside, sandy beach, or marshy wetland, flooding can destroy valuable property and cause “coastal squeeze.”
6 “Coastal squeeze” occurs where coastal development impedes the natural inland migration of beaches, depleting habitat for one of the most biodiverse marine ecosystems on the planet, and harming a crucial cultural resource.
7 Many coastal communities in California are already experienc -
ing these impacts,
8 and the best available science suggests that damages will worsen as sea-level rise accelerates.
9 Further, the dense development on the

4. See generally
Cal. Coastal Comm’n, Sea Level Rise Policy Guidance: Interpretive Guidelines for Addressing Sea Level Rise in Local Coastal Programs and Coastal Development Permits
26 (2018),
https://documents.coastal.ca.gov/ reports/2018/9/w6g/w6g- 9-2018-exhibits.pdf [https://perma.cc/9NRF-FRRN] [hereinafter CCC SLR Guidelines] (for a discussion of the infrastructure affected by rising seas in California).

5. CCC SLR Guidelines,

supra
note 4, at 27 , n.4 (clarifying that the threat to coastal resources means a threat to beaches, wetlands, agricultural lands, coastal habitats, recre -
ational opportunities, and more);
Cal. Ocean Prot. Council, Sea-Level Rise Guidance:
2018 Update
7–8 (2018), http://www.opc.ca.gov/webmaster/ftp/pdf/agenda_items/20180314/ Item3_Exhibit-A_OPC_SLR_Guidance-rd3.pdf [https://perma.cc/MG3F-3S2K] [hereinaf -
ter
OPR Guidance
] (describing those threats of sea-level rise that are specific to California).

6. Griggs,
infra
note 9, at 45.

7. Id.
at 45.

See also

Ctr. for Ocean Sols., The Public Trust Doctrine: A
Guiding Principle for Governing California’s Coast Under Climate Change 3 (2017),
https://oceansolutions.stanford.edu/news-stories/public-trust-doctrine-guiding-principle-

governing-californias-coast-under-climate [https://perma.cc/43X5-F86Z] (“If not proactively managed, coastal development may impede natural landward migration of these important coastal features and impair the public’s ability to enjoy the social and economic benefits provided by the coast.”).

8. See e.g.
, Mary Callahan,
Caltrans Prepares to Shift Highway 1 at Gleason Beach
,
Press Democrat
(Apr. 16, 2014), https://www.pressdemocrat.com/news/1860880-181/cal -
trans-prepares-to-shift-highway [https://perma.cc/KQ86-AJ3V];

Peter Flimrite,
Pacific Ocean
Devours Pacifica Cliffs in Aerial Photos Over Decades
,
SF Gate
(Feb. 3, 2016, 4:00 AM), https://
www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Pacific-Ocean-devours-Pacifica-cliffs-in-aerial-6802840.php [https://perma.cc/S5UT-WJ77]; Oliver Milman,
Sinking Santa Cruz: Climate Change Threatens
Famed California Beach Town
,
Guardian
(Oct. 11, 2018, 1:00 PM), https://www.theguardian.
com/us-news/2018/oct/11/santa-cruz-sinking-climate-change-beaches-surfing

[https://perma.
cc/H8UL-JBRV];
The Grand Bayway
,
Resilient by Design Bay Area Challenge
, http://
www.resilientbayarea.org/grand-bayway (describing the plan to modify the low lying Highway 37 , which will soon be inundated as a result of sea-level rise).

9. The rate of sea-level rise will accelerate over the next century even under the most conservative emissions scenarios. California specific reports estimate 6 to 11 feet of rise by 2100.

See
Griggs et al., California’s Coast and Ocean Summary Report, California’s Fourth Climate Change Assessment 17 (2018),
http://www.climateassessment.ca.gov/state/
docs/20180827-oceancoastsummary.pdf [https://perma.cc/86Y7-CQXF]; Gary Griggs et
al
.,
Rising Seas in California: An Update on Sea-Level Rise in California

24 (2017), http://
www.opc.ca.gov/webmaster/ftp/pdf/docs/rising-seas-in-california-an-update-on-sea-level- rise-science.pdf [https://perma.cc/WD5T-LD2J];
See generally
John A. Church et al
.,
Sea
Level Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis
, in
1137 Climate Change
2013:

The Physical
26 262

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V37:2
California coast suggests even more so that the damage will be devastating: 68 percent of the state population lives within its nineteen coastal counties, and these coastal areas account for 80 percent of the state GDP . 10 However, local governments have the requisite tools to mitigate the eco -
nomic, cultural, and environmental consequences of sea-level rise, but need adequate information to evaluate risk and make planning decisions that allevi -
ate the burden rising sea-levels place on coastal communities and ecosystems. 11 Since land use decisions in California are made on a local level, local governments in California bear the responsibility of making land use decisions that mitigate these harms. Thereby, they have the power to adopt and imple -
ment adaptation strategies in order to save valuable coastal infrastructure and ecosystems.
12 Whereas local governments may implement any of several strat -
egies to mitigate the effects of sea-level rise, these local governments need to be adequately informed in order to implement them. Adaption strategies include: (1)
retreat
from the shoreline; (2)
adapt
infrastructure to be resil
-
ient to sea-level rise; and (3)
protect
shoreline infrastructure from sea-level
rise.
13 Local governments have a repertoire of regulatory tools with which to implement one or more of these adopted strategies.
14 However, to effectively
implement any one of these strategies, it is crucial for local government offi -
cials and their constituents to be properly informed of the way that sea-level rise will affect development on the coastline—enter the California Environ -
mental Quality Act.

Science Basis
(T.F. Stocker et al., eds., 2013), http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/ report/WG1AR5_Chapter13_FINAL.pdf [https://perma.cc/NY7F-2URH] [hereinafter IPCC Report] (providing a global assessment of sea-level rise projections).

10. Gary

Griggs et al., California’s Coast and Ocean Summary Report, California’s Fourth Climate Change Assessment
12 (2018), http://www.climateassessment.ca.gov/state/
docs/20180827-oceancoastsummary.pdf [https://perma.cc/ZC6B-VT5L] (noting that much of California’s coast was developed at a time where there was little El Niño flooding or storm activity).

11. OPR Guidance,
supra
note 5, at 23–27 .

12. See
IPCC Report,

supra
note 9.

13. Jesse Reiblich et al.,
Enabling and Limiting Conditions of Coastal Adaptation:

Local Governments, Land Uses, and Legal Challenges
, 22
Ocean & Coastal L.J
. 156, 162–63
(2017) (“Proactive planning and preparation for these likely effects should be a top pri -
ority for coastal communities on the frontlines of climate change. Linking the best avail -
able scientific information on climate hazards to adaptation policy is the vital next step in successful coastal adaptation . . . . this information may be necessary for determining the appropriate adaptation approaches for an area.”).

See also
Megan M. Herzog & Sean B.

Hecht,
Combatting Sea Level Rise in Southern California: How Local Governments Can Seize Adaptation Opportunities While Minimizing Legal Risk , 19
Hastings W. N.W. J. Envtl.

L. & Pol’y
463, 543 (2013) (“local governments already exercise a robust suite of police powers and other regulatory powers that can be harnessed to achieve successful adaptation outcomes . . . .  Preparing for sea level rise will require local governments to make difficult decisions about the future of their coastal communities.”).

14. See generally
Herzog & Hecht,
supra
note 13.
27 2019

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Without adequate information about the risks of sea-level rise to coastal development (and vice versa), local governments often approve development in high-risk areas.
15 Accordingly, the OPR Guidelines for Sea-Level Rise Adap -
tation set forth a five-step

decision-making process to help local governments
plan appropriate development in coastal areas.
16 Knowledge and disclosure of
risks is a crucial part of the five-step process, and where a private development requires discretionary approval, local government can use the CEQA process to be adequately informed of the risks that the development may create with respect to sea-level rise.

A.

CEQA Can Help Local Governments Evaluate the Risks
of Sea-Level Rise
The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA)
17 is a regulatory
tool that mandates the disclosure of environmental risks when a state or local agency approves a discretionary project. Therefore, one of the myriad tools local government can harness to employ sea-level rise adaptation strategies in a proactive planning context is the Environmental Impact Report (EIR).

Through the EIR, CEQA “may provide an opportunity for local governments to evaluate, on a project-by-project basis or at the planning stage, the rela -
tionship between future sea-level rise and planned development near the coastline.”
18 Because CEQA requires public agencies to disclose any signif -
icant environmental impacts of a proposed development and mitigate any effects they deem above a certain threshold of significance, it is a powerful public disclosure tool.
19 As will be discussed in Part
II
, analysis of sea-level rise
is not explicitly required by CEQA or its guidelines,
so
there is not currently
uniform disclosure of the effects of sea-level rise on a project over time. None -
theless, CEQA does require agencies to forecast environmental risks to the best of their ability.
20 Sea-level rise may, over time, affect traditional resource categories that are governed by CEQA.

II.

The Current Case Law and OPR Guidelines
Case law indicates that lead agencies need not analyze sea-level rise in EIRs unless a proposed development would exacerbate the effects of sea-level

15. Kevin Stark & Mary Catherine O’Connor,
Mapping the Shoreline Building
Boom as Seas Rise.

S.F. Pub. Press
(Apr. 21, 2017 , 5:36 PM), https://sfpublicpress.org/
news/searise/2017-04/mapping-the-shoreline-building-boom-as-seas-rise [https://perma.cc/ W44Y-UA66 ] (implying that a surge in coastal development is a result of the loosening of CEQA requirements, but it is unclear whether the projects described in the article are all subject to CEQA or whether an evolution of sea-level rise flooding would have changed the decision of the lead agencies in those cases).

16. OPR Guidance,
supra
note 5, at 23.
1 7.

Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§ 21000–21189 (West 2016).

18. Herzog & Hecht,
supra
note 13, at 485.

19. Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§ 21002.1(a) (setting forth the purpose of the EIR).

20. Cal. Code Regs.
tit. 14, § 15144 (2019).
28 264

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V37:2
rise. Due to the lack of direction in the California Public Resources Code and the California Code of Regulations, decisions about whether or not an anal -
ysis of sea-level rise is required in an EIR have been made on a case-by-case basis in CEQA litigation. Executive Order S-13-08 and B-30-15 both direct state agencies to consider sea-level rise in planning and financing decisions, but there is no indication that local agencies are required to consider sea-level rise in planning decision.
21 The California Court of Appeal held in
Ballona Wetlands
that sea-level
rise analysis was not required because that would be reverse-CEQA. The Cal -
ifornia Supreme Court confirmed this holding in a different case that did not involve sea-level rise and added an exception to the general rule for cases where the project might exacerbate the existing environmental conditions.

However, the Court did not clarify whether sea-level rise fell within this excep -
tion. According to recently approved environmental impact reports (EIRs), practitioners and lead agencies still interpret
CBIA v. BAAQMD
to mean that
sea-level rise analysis is not required for coastal projects. In other words, sea- level rise does not fit into the exacerbation exception. However, this approach is inconsistent with the idea that a project affected by sea-level rise will always interrupt the littoral cycle. It is also inconsistent with the idea that blocking the sea-level rise with a development project will always affect environmental resources. For these reasons, the holding in
Sierra Club v. City of Oxnard
pres
-
ents a better approach to the sea-level rise analysis.] This Part presents an analysis of the judicial decisions on this question.

The ambiguities presented herein underscore both the complexity of CEQA and judicial misunderstanding of coastal processes. Further ambiguity arises from application of the law to the incredible variety of coastal environments in California—built, armored, and undeveloped.

A.

Sea-Level Rise in the Public Resources Code and the OPR Guidelines Given that the California Public Resources Code (CPR) includes only broad language about the requirements of an EIR, it is not surprising that sea- level rise is not specifically mentioned in the CEQA statute. Rather, the CPR requires an EIR to analyze significant impacts on the “environment,” which is defined as “physical conditions that exist within the area of the proposed project including land, air, water, minerals, flora, fauna, noise, or objects of historic or aesthetic significance.”
22 This definition is devoid of the words “sea-
level rise” and “mean high tide.” However, if placing a development in the way of sea-level rise would cause coastal squeeze and thus affect the inward migration of beach over time, an EIR analyzing potential effects on envi -
ronmental resources would be appropriate. The EIR would consider issues

21. See
Cal. Exec. Order No. B-30-15 (Apr. 29, 2015) (requiring state agencies to factor climate change into all planning and investment decisions).

22. Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§ 21060.5 (2016).
29 2019

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explicitly contemplated by CEQA’s Appendix G such as sand (“minerals”) and wave energy (“water”).
23 Again, analysis of sea-level rise may be neces
-
sary to adequately forecast the effects that sea-level rise may have on those listed environmental resource categories that are more traditionally consid -
ered in an EIR.

Often, agencies rely on Appendix G in the OPR Guidelines when com -
pleting an EIR. The CPR mandates that the Office of Planning and Resources promulgate guidelines detailing how to comply with CEQA. 24 Appendix G
is the result; it is a nonexhaustive checklist of environmental resources in the OPR Guidelines that an agency should consider in determining whether a project will have significant impacts on the environment. The Appendix gen -
erally reflects the categories listed in the CEQA definition of “environment,” and fails to include “sea-level rise.”
25 While this void is not dispositive, Cal
-
ifornia courts have provided little additional guidance regarding analysis of sea-level rise in an EIR.

B.

Ballona Wetlands and CBIA vs. BAAQMD
In
Ballona Wetlands Land Trust v. City of Los Angeles
(
Ballona Wet
-
lands
), the California Court of Appeal held that CEQA does not require the lead agency to analyze or disclose the effects of sea-level rise on the proposed development.
26 CEQA requires analysis and disclosure of a project’s effects on the environment, and that to require the opposite—an analysis of the envi -
ronment’s effects on the project—would be contrary to the language and purpose of CEQA.
27 In
Cal. Bldg. Indus. Ass’n v. Bay Area Air Quality Mgmt.

Dist
. (
CBIA
), the California Supreme Court upheld the underlying rationale for the holding in
Ballona Wetlands
by condemning reverse-CEQA. However,
the Court carved out an exception to this general rule where a development may exacerbate an environmental hazard.
28 The misunderstandings and ambi
-
guity in these decisions reflect either a confusion about the nature of coastal dynamics, a confusion about the imminence of sea-level rise and its effects, or both. The forecasting and disclosure principles in CEQA suggest that is it not useful to put analysis of sea-level rise into the reverse-CEQA paradigm at all.

23. See
Cal.’s Fourth Climate Change Assessment, California’s Coast and Ocean Summary Report,
supra
note 9,

at 45 (describing coastal squeeze and its effects on
the environment).

See generally
Kiki P atsch & Gary Griggs, Inst. of Marine Sci. at U.C., Santa Cruz, Littoral Cells, Sand Budgets, And Beaches: Understanding California’s Shoreline
(2006), http://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/ucldc-nuxeo-ref-media/a956aa7a- bef7-423a-9b96-9708b00072d1 [https://perma.cc/PE4E-9VZP] (describing the way that coastal development can interfere with the littoral cycle and deplete beaches).

24. Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§ 21083 (2016).

25. Cal. Code Regs
. tit. 14, App. G (2019).

26. Ballona Wetlands Land Tr. v. City of L.A., 201 Cal. App. 4th 455 (2011). 2 7.

Id.

28. Cal. Bldg. Indus. Ass’n v. Bay Area Air Quality Mgmt. Dist, 62 Cal. 4th 369 (2015). 30 266

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V37:2
In
Ballona Wetlands
, the lead agency certified a revised EIR for a mixed-
use real estate development two miles from the ocean.
29 The project was
subject to CEQA because it required the City of Los Angeles to amend both its general and specific plan, approve a vesting tentative map, and adopt an ordinance authorizing a development agreement.
30 The revised EIR discussed
sea-level rise caused by global climate change only to the extent that it was required to in order to respond to public comments, and included no analysis of projected rise as related to the development.
31 The court held that analysis of sea-level rise beyond the statutory require -
ments for comment response would be reverse-CEQA: “Identifying the effects on the project and its users of locating the project in a particular environmen -
tal setting is neither consistent with CEQA’s legislative purpose nor required by the CEQA statutes . . . .
we hold that an EIR need not identify or analyze
[the effects on the project caused by the environment]. ”
32 While Appendix G of
the Guidelines requires lead agencies to analyze the exacerbation of environ -
mental hazards, the court held that this guideline was invalid to the extent that it required an analysis of the environment’s effect on a project .
33 The court’s holding in
Ballona Wetlands
reflects judicial misunderstand
-
ing of both coastal dynamics and the rapidly increasing rate of sea-level rise.

This misunderstanding led the court to hold that analysis of sea-level rise is reverse-CEQA, which kept the court from reaching the issue of whether the lead agency met its duty to reasonably forecast future environmental impacts.

While this holding is widely-followed,
34 its application to sea-level rise is
unique to this opinion and not consistent with the science of coastal dynamics.

This application ignores the effects that a coastal development could have on environmental resources in the future as a result of sea-level rise. Whereas sea- level rise analysis is not explicitly required by CEQA or the OPR Guidelines, a developments interference with sea-level rise does in fact effect resources that are explicitly protected by CEQA.

29. Ballona Wetlands
, 201 Cal. App. 4th at 462–63.

30. Id.

31. The city responded by refuting a comment which presented a projection of sea- level rise (the projection enumerated in “The Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on the California Coast” by the California Climate Change Center) because it was a worst-case scenario pro -
jection. The comment response also noted that the development was two miles from the coastline, unlikely to be affected by wave action, and that the land between the development and the coast was elevated.

Id.
at 472 (“[The Draft EIR] briefly noted that global warming could result in a rise in sea-level and the inundation of coastal areas. They stated that the ccc paper failed to account for the fact that the project site was two miles from the ocean and unlikely to be affected by wave action, failed to account for elevated land between the proj -
ect site and the coastline that would act as a barrier, and failed to account for the topography of the project site and building elevations.”).

32. Id.
at 474.

33. Id.;
Cal. Code Regs
. tit. 14, App. G (2019).

34. See e.g
.,
Pres. Poway v. City of Poway
, 245 Cal. App. 4th 560, 582 (2016).
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In
CBIA
, the California Supreme Court upheld the

rule against reverse-
CEQA, while also potentially opening the door to sea-level rise analysis requirements in certain instances. There, the air quality management district promulgated new thresholds of significance for certain air pollutants. The new thresholds would be standards against which lead agencies would compare the pollutants emitted by their projects for the purposes of CEQA analysis. The plaintiff petitioned for mandamus and argued that that the air district’s new thresholds were arbitrary and capricious because they required lead agencies to analyze the way that a project would affect future users. The court held that, “it is the project’s impact on the environment—and not the environment’s impact on the project—that compels an evaluation of how future residents or users could be affected by exacerbated conditions . . .  In light of CEQA’s text and structure, we conclude that
CEQA generally does not require an analysis of
how existing environmental conditions will impact a project’s future users

or res
-
idents
.”
35 The court thereby held that reverse-CEQA analysis is not required.

Yet, because the facts in
CBIA
did not involve sea-level rise, the court did
not speak directly to whether sea-level rise fell within the reverse-CEQA para -
digm or into the court’s new exception. Whereas the court in Ballona Wetlands
invalidated Appendix G of the Guidelines to the extent that it violated the no reverse-CEQA rule, the court in
CBIA
qualified this wipeout with an excep
-
tion for developments that could exacerbate an already existing environmental hazard.
36 The court cited
Ballona Wetlands
when holding that reverse-CEQA
is not required in an EIR. However, regarding the exacerbation exception, the court noted that “the holding from
Ballona Wetlands
is not explicitly over
-
ruled,” but that it merely “considered factors that the court in Ballona Wetlands
did not.” On one hand, the court cited
Ballona Wetlands
to come to its main
conclusion, and on the other, it did not have the opportunity to decide whether sea-level rise should be analyzed or even fit into the paradigm.

1. Sea-Level Rise Analysis is Not Reverse-CEQA
Both
Ballona Wetlands
and
CBIA
condemn the use of reverse-CEQA
under the rationale that the purpose of CEQA is to forecast foreseeable sig -
nificant impacts of a project on the environment, not the other way around. 37 Unfortunately, both cases make the issue of sea-level rise analysis in EIRs more complicated than it needs to be, muddling the issue in a way that contradicts CEQAs explicit purpose of disclosure of environmental risks. Part III
argues
that CEQA’s purpose—protection of California’s environmental resources— is better realized when an EIR is used to analyze sea-level rise over time, and presents ways to analyze sea-level rise in and EIR.

35. Id.
(emphasis added).

36. Cal. Bldg. Indus. Ass’n
, 62 Cal. 4th 369, 386 (2015).
3 7.

Id.
;
Ballona Wetlands
, 201 Cal. App. 4th at 474.
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Moving forward, there are two ways to incorporate sea-level rise analysis into EIRs under the current law in order to adequately fulfill CEQAs purpose as a public disclosure statute.

First, using the exception created by the California Supreme Court in CBIA
, an EIR could analyze sea-level rise on the basis that it is an existing envi -
ronmental hazard and a development could exacerbate its effects. Although the Court in
CBIA
stopped short of an explicit statement that sea-level rise is an environmental hazard that may fall into the exception, it is clear that such an exemption is warranted where a development contributes to coastal squeeze. Using this exception may lead to an entire section of an EIR which looks at whether and to what degree sea-level rise effects may be exacerbated by a development over its lifetime.

Second, avoiding the concept of reverse-CEQA altogether, an EIR could analyze the effect that a development could have on coastal resources listed in Appendix G as the sea rises over the lifetime of the project. While this solution ignores the precedent set by
Ballona Wetlands
,

this approach more adequately
accounts for the way that the built environment affects coastal resources via the phenomenon of coastal squeeze.

In these instances, the effects of sea-
level rise do not necessarily fall within the typical reverse-CEQA paradigm because a project in the way of sea-level rise, by impeding the dynamic coast -
line’s inland migration, will necessarily affect environmental resources. This approach would look at the resources listed in Appendix G and forecast how each one would be impacted by coastal squeeze.

Of course, this analysis would differ dependent on the coastal environment adjacent to or abutting the cited development. A development on land that is upland of undeveloped tidelands may impede migration of shoreline and cause coastal squeeze in the future. These developments may require an analysis of sea-level rise in their EIRs if the project is discretionary in order to evaluate the consequences of sea-level rise to cultural resources and coastal ecosystems.

Where a development is proposed on a coastline that is already developed, there may only be infrastructural consequences. In those areas, the coastal eco -
system and beaches have already been depleted. Thus, in such circumstances, CEQA’s requirement that a lead agency consider sea-level rise to protect resources may not apply to developed coastlines. Much of California’s recent boom in development has been concentrated in the San Francisco Peninsula. In this area, the environmental resources that an EIR would usually evaluate have already been depleted, so sea-level rise analysis in an EIR would be irrelevant.

III.

Incorporating Analysis of Sea-Level Rise Into EIRs
CEQA provides long-term protection for environmental resources by mandating that public agencies approving projects disclose the significant envi -
ronmental risks associated with those projects.
38 Further, agencies must either

38. Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§§  21100, 21151 (mandating that lead agencies draft and 33 2019

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mitigate risks that they determine are above a threshold of significance or explain why the impact is necessary to the public good.
39 The purpose of the EIR process
is to “[i]nform governmental decision makers and the public about the potential, significant environmental effects of proposed activities.” 40 The OPR Guidelines
acknowledge that this requires some degree of forecasting to determine future environmental risks and notes that “an agency must use its best efforts to find out and disclose all that it reasonably can” regarding future risks. 41 After determining that a project is subject to CEQA, the lead agency on a project must determine whether the project will have any significant effect on the environment.
42 If it determines that there is a significant effect, the lead agency must prepare a full EIR wherein all significant effects on the environ -
ment are analyzed and disclosed.
43 The purpose of an EIR “is to identify the
significant effects on the environment of a project, to identify alternatives to the project, and to indicate the manner in which those significant effects can be mitigated or avoided.”
44 This ensures that an EIR provides “decision makers
with information they can use in deciding whether to approve a proposed project.”
45 “An EIR should be prepared with a sufficient degree of analysis to provide decision makers with information which enables them to make a decision which intelligently takes account of environmental consequences.” 46 According to these principles of interpretation, the EIR should be drafted to include as much information as possible about present and reasonably foresee -
able future environmental effects.

Despite these announced principles regarding the EIR process in gen -
eral, neither the text of CEQA nor the Office of Planning and Resources Guidelines for interpreting CEQA mandate analysis of sea-level rise in an EIR. This is not dispositive. The Legislature has made clear that an EIR is “an certify EIRs for discretionary state and private projects and setting forth what the EIR must include);
Cal. Code Regs.
tit. 14, § 15002(f) (“An Environmental Impact Report (EIR) is the public document used by the governmental agency . . . . to disclose
possible ways to reduce or
avoid the possible environmental damage”) (emphasis added).

See also

Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§ 21065(a) (defining “project” as “an activity directly undertaken by any public agency.”); C
al. Pub. Res. Code
§ 21068 (defining “significant effect on the environment” as a “substan -
tial, or potentially substantial, adverse change in the environment.”).

39. Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§ 21100.

40. Cal. Code Regs.
tit. 14, § 15002(a) (2019).

41. Id.
at § 15144.

42. See id
. at
Appendix A
(providing a flowchart of the CEQA process).

43. Id.

44. Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§ 21002.1(a). The Code also sets forth the purpose of an EIR:
“[t]he purpose . . . is to provide public agencies and the public in general with detailed infor -
mation about the effect which a proposed project is likely to have on the environment . . . ” .

Id.
at § 21061.

45. Laurel Heights Improvement Ass’n. of S.F. v. Regents of the Univ. of Cal., Cal. 3d 376, 394 (1988).

46. Cal. Code Regs.
tit. 14, § 15151 (2019) (detailing the “Standards for Adequacy of an EIR”).
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informational document” and that “[t]he purpose of an environmental impact report is to provide public agencies and the public in general with detailed information about the effect which a proposed project is likely to have on the environment; to list ways in which the significant effects of such a project might be minimized; and to indicate alternatives to such a project.” 47 In fact,
CEQA should be interpreted to effect the broadest protections possible on the environment.
48 A.

Analysis of Sea-level Rise Effects on Resources Listed in Appendix G of the OPR Guidelines
The primary effect that sea-level rise can have on the environment is coastal squeeze. When infrastructure is placed in the way of sea-level rise, it affects coastal retreat by interrupting the littoral cycle and depleting coastal resources. Our shoreline is dynamic—tons of sand move down the coast every day, placing buildings in the way of the rising sea as the coastline changes. Newly placed infrastructure prevents sand from moving down the coast, the accretion of beach land, and the shoreline from moving inland as a result of sea-level rise. 49 In an EIR, loss of beach may be evaluated under Appendix G as deple -
tion of mineral resources or loss of habitat.
50 More controversially, an EIR could
evaluate loss of beach as a depletion of public trust resources. In unpublished opinions, California Superior Courts have determined that an EIR must evalu -
ate sea-level rise and its effects where wetland migration is impeded by a project or where groundwater supply is at risk of contamination. 51 Although the collat
-
eral effects on these environmental resources are generally analyzed under other categories in Appendix G, a lead agency should follow the lead of the California courts and separately analyze sea-level rise over time with respect to the project in order to adequately disclose to the public and local government if and when beach migration or cliff erosion would be impeded by development.

1. Mineral Resources
Where a project includes an analysis of sea-level rise, that project will inher -
ently interfere with the littoral cycle and deplete the sand budget of a littoral cell. 4 7.

Cal. Pub. Res. Code
§ 21061 (West 2016).

See also

Cal. Code Regs.
tit. 14, § 15003
(b–e) (2019).

48. See, e.g.
, Ctr. for Biological Diversity v. Cty. of San Bernardino, 247 Cal. App. 4th 326, 327 (2016) (“The foremost principle under CEQA is that the Legislature intended the act ‘to be interpreted in such manner as to afford the fullest possible protection to the envi -
ronment within the reasonable scope of the statutory language.’”) (quoting Laurel Heights
Improvement Ass’n
, 47 Cal. 3d at 394).

49. See
generally,
P atsch & Griggs
,
supra
note 23.

50. Cal. Code Regs
. tit. 14, App. G (2019).

51. E.g.
, Sierra Club v. City of Oxnard, No. 56201100401161, 2012 WL 7659201 (Cal.

Super. Oct. 15, 2012). This decision is not binding. However, the court’s approach to sea- level rise and CEQA is more logical and persuasive than the court’s approach in Ballona
Wetlands
.
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Appendix G of the OPR Guidelines requires that a lead agency analyze the project’s significant impacts on mineral resources.
52 An analysis of sea-level rise
over time near a project should be conducted to determine whether, or approxi -
mately when, the project could interfere with the sand budget. 53 Coastal squeeze is caused by developing too close to the shoreline, com -
bined with movement inland of beach. This results in loss of beach through erosion and lack of sand supply:

The coastline of California can be divided into a set of distinct, self-contained littoral cells or beach compartments. These compartments are geographi -
cally limited, and consist of a series of sand sources (such as rivers, streams, and eroding coastal bluffs) that provide sand to the shoreline, sand sinks (such as coastal dunes and submarine canyons) where sand is lost from the shoreline, and longshore transport or littoral drift that moves sand along the shoreline . . .  Beach sand moves on and offshore seasonally in response to changing wave energy, and also moves alongshore, driven by waves that usually approach the beach at some angle. Most beach sand along the coast of California is transported from north to south as a result of the dominant waves approaching the shoreline from the northwest, although alongshore transport to the north occurs in some locations and at certain times of the year in response to waves from the south . . .  It is the balance between the volumes of sand entering and leaving a littoral cell over the long-term that govern the long-term width of the beaches within the cell.

Where sand supplies have been reduced through the construction of dams or debris basins in coastal watersheds, through armoring the sea cliffs, by mining sand or restricting littoral transport through large coastal engineer -
ing structures, the beaches may temporarily or permanently narrow. 54 Essentially, where bluffs and beaches are armored by seawalls or the development itself, the sand budget of a littoral cell is depleted. A lead agency may be required to analyze this environmental effect through the traditional resource categories in Appendix G. However, when development begins, the project’s interaction with sea-level rise may not be immediately appar -
ent. Therefore, the lead agency should analyze whether the project will, at any point during its lifetime, interact with sea-level rise.

Although the lead agency in
Ballona Wetlands
was correct to notice that
the project was two miles out from the coast, sea-level rise analysis could have

52. Cal. Code Regs.
tit. 14, App. G, § XI (2016) (“Would the project: A) Result in the loss of availability of a known mineral resource that would be of value to the region and the residents of the State?”).

53. See

The Public Trust Doctrine: A Guiding Principle for Governing California’s Coast Under Climate Change
,
Ctr. for Ocean Sols.

2 (2017), https://oceansolutions.stan
-
ford.edu/news-stories/public-trust-doctrine-guiding-principle-governing-californias-coast-

under-climate [https://perma.cc/QFW6-JP5H] (“California’s policy makers, coastal manag -
ers, and communities increasingly recognize that the inevitable collision of sea-level rise with certain coastal development trends—what some have termed ‘coastal squeeze’—threatens California’s Coast”).

54. P atsch & Griggs
,
supra
note 23, at 7 .
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been used to determine and ensure that the project would never, within its life -
time, interfere with a sand source. The ever-increasing rate of sea-level rise necessitates this type of analysis to protect mineral resources even where proj -
ects may not initially appear to be a risk to coastal resources.

2. Biological Resources
Where coastal development combines with sea-level rise to result in “coastal squeeze,” there will be a substantial reduction in habitat for wildlife species dependent upon the tidal biome. Appendix G requires assessment of impacts on wildlife and habitat that has already been designated as endan -
gered or sensitive in a section labeled “Biological Resources.” 55 The Appendix
also includes a catchall category at the end labeled “Mandatory Findings of Significance” wherein the lead agency must determine whether “the project ha[s] the potential to . . . substantially reduce the habitat of a fish or wildlife species, cause a fish or wildlife population to drop below self-sustaining levels, threaten to eliminate a plant of animal community . . . ” 56 If the project, over
its lifetime, results in coastal squeeze, there would be a significant impact on the resources identified in this subsection of the Appendix.

3. The Public Trust
California has an affirmative and continuing duty to exercise supervision over public trust resources.
57 The public trust doctrine itself is a common law
principle that reaffirms “the duty of the state to protect the people’s common heritage of streams, lakes, marshlands and tidelands, surrendering that right of protection only in rare cases.”
58 When a development could contribute to
coastal squeeze by inhibiting shoreline migration or interrupting the littoral cycle, the development could interfere with the public’s right to use the land seaward of the mean high-tide line.
59 Although case law makes clear that the
public trust doctrine obligates the state to protect tidelands independent of CEQA, it is unclear whether compliance with the public trust doctrine must be analyzed in an EIR, or otherwise accounted for in the CEQA review process.

The purpose and structure of CEQA suggest that it is an ideal tool through which to obligate the government to consider the public trust doctrine in relation to a project. Accordingly, it would serve the needs of the people to streamline public trust review into CEQA review by adding consideration of the public trust to Appendix G of the guidelines.

55. See
Cal. Code Regs.
tit. 14, App. G, § IV (2010).

56. Id
. at § XXI.
5 7.

See
Nat’l Audubon Soc’y v. Super. Ct., 33 Cal. 3d 419, 425 (1983) (“The core of the public trust doctrine is the state’s authority as sovereign to exercise a continuous supervision and control over the navigable waters of the state and the lands underlying those waters”).

58. Id.
at 441.

59. Ctr. For Ocean Sols.
,
supra
note 7 , at 3.
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In
Marks v. Whitney
, the Supreme Court held that the public trust doc
-
trine applies to tidelands—land seaward of the mean high tide. 60 Further, the
Court held that the state could consider the importance of recreational uses and conservation, such that the trust need not only exist in the traditional con -
text of fishing and navigation.
61 In fact, the very origins of the public trust
doctrine in Roman law beg protection of the shores for the enjoyment of the people.
62 Where a development could interfere with the use of a tideland for recreation and conservation of marine ecosystems, it might also interfere with resources protected by the public trust. Thus, the State has an obligation to protect those uses.

Since courts have construed CEQA to require analysis of effects on the environment, it is uncertain whether a lead agency must consider the public trust when certifying an EIR. Usually, an action for the state to consider a public trust resource is brought via an independent cause of action where plaintiffs seek injunctive relief. An allegedly deficient EIR is challenged via a petition for writ of mandate.
63 Neither precedent nor the OPR Guidelines con
-
firm that a plaintiff could file a writ of mandamus specifically alleging that an EIR is deficient for failing to consider the public trust, rather than separately alleging that the state has not considered the public trust. On one hand, the purposes and disclosure mechanisms of CEQA make it a great vehicle through which to confirm that a lead agency (as a conduit for the state) has sufficiently considered the public trust. On the other hand, the court in CBIA
made
clear that CEQA must analyze a project’s effects on the environment, and it eschewed expansions of CEQA to protect entities that are not environmental resources.
64 The public trust doctrine, despite effectively protecting environ -
mental resources, is meant to protect public
uses
of certain protected resources.

CEQA, however, usually mandates disclosure of impacts on physical
environ
-
mental resources. Although the public trust doctrine is often litigated to meet an environmentally conscious end,
65 the legal principle remains grounded in
common law property rights as a way to prioritize uses of property to prevent nuisance and collective action problems.
66 In
S.F. Baykeeper, Inc. v. State Lands Commission
, the First Appellate Dis
-
trict held that an EIR regarding sand mining leases in the San Francisco Bay was

60. Marks v. Whitney, 6 Cal. 3d 251, 257 (1971);
see also

Nat’l Audubon Soc’y
, 33 Cal.
3d at 425.

61. Marks
, 6 Cal. 3d at 257
.

62. Caesar Flavius Justinian, The Institutes of Justinian, 2.1.1 (J.B. Moyle trans.,
5th ed. 1913) (“Thus, the following things are by natural law common to all—the air, running water, the sea, and consequently the seashore. No one therefore is forbidden access to the seashore . . . .”).

63. Cal. Civ. Proc. Code

§ 1085 (West);
See also
CEQA: A Summary, Cal. Civ. Prac.

Environmental Litigation Ch. 8 Summary).

64. Cal. Bldg. Indus. Ass’n
, 62 Cal. 4th at 386.

65. See e.g.
,
Marks
, 6 Cal. 3d at 257 .

66. See
Garrett Hardin,
The Tragedy of the Commons
, 162
Science
1243 (1968)
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inadequate because it failed to consider the public trust doctrine. 67 Rather than
arguing that analysis of a project’s effects on public trust resources is not required in an EIR, the State Lands Commission argued that “CEQA review eliminates the obligation to consider whether a project violates the public trust.” 68 The court
was unclear as to whether this evaluation of public trust resources needed to occur
in the EIR
, but it did make clear that an evaluation of the public trust doc -
trine by the State was required and could not be displaced by CEQA review. 69 The
S.F. Baykeeper
court relied on its prior decision in
Citizens for East
Shore Parks v. State Lands Commission
to reach its conclusion.
70 There, the
court held that consideration of the public trust doctrine through CEQA review was
sufficient
consideration of public trust needs, but not
necessary
.
71 Nonetheless, the holding acknowledges that CEQA accepts the public trust doctrine into its legal framework.

Although CEQA requires analysis of significant impacts on the environ -
ment in an EIR, the public trust doctrine as a concept of the common law is not necessarily equivalent to “the environment.” However, compliance with the public trust doctrine necessarily implicates the protection of resources listed under the definition of “environment.” Development on the coastline will result in the eventual depletion of a resource held in trust by the state for the people. This occurs in two different ways.
72 First, the proposed project could
interfere with an up-current sand source.
73 Second, the proposed develop
-
ment, or armoring thereof, could interfere with the inward migration of beach (“impoundment”).
74 Armoring of a bluff or beach to protect the development can affect the size of the beach through placement of the armoring (“place -
ment loss”).
75 Coastal structures can also interfere directly with beach access.

Although some of these interferences would also affect mineral resources, they all implicate public trust resources.

Loss of beach necessarily has detrimental effects on other environmental resources, but the beach, which is seaward of the mean high tide, is protected 6 7.

S.F. Baykeeper, Inc. v. State Lands Com., 242 Cal. App. 4th 202, 242–43 (2015).

68. Id.
at 235.

69. Id.

70. See
Citizens for E. Shore Parks v. State Lands Com., 202 Cal. App. 4th 549 (2011) (“Plaintiffs have cited no case, and we are aware of none, that suggests that where no change is being made to a public trust use and there has been compliance with CEQA, the public trust doctrine independently imposes an additional impact analysis requirement and requires the consideration of additional project alternatives and mitigation measures in connection with other public trust uses.”).

71. Id.

72. Gary B. Griggs,
The Effects of Armoring Shorelines—The California Experience ,
in
Puget Sound Shorelines and the Impacts of Armoring—Proceedings of a State of the Science Workshop, May 2009
77 , 80 (Hugh Shipman et al. ed., 2009).

73. Id.

74. Id.

75. Id.
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by the public trust doctrine. In this context, the public trust doctrine states that the state of California holds the navigable waters and the lands underlying those waters in trust for the people of the state.
76 Therefore, the state is obli
-
gated to protect these resources and to consider them in its decisionmaking.

What remains undetermined, however, is whether a lead agency must consider the public trust in a CEQA determination.

While case law is inconclusive about the interaction between CEQA and the public trust doctrine, streamlining review of the public trust by combining it with CEQA review would serve both efficiency and the CEQA principle of full disclosure. Further, the relationship between the public trust uses and the availability of natural resources is too intertwined to argue that review of the public trust is not required as part of a CEQA determination.

4. The
Sierra Club v. City of Oxnard
Approach
Some lower courts have reasoned that sea-level rise analysis in an EIR is required only where it will affect more tangible environmental resources so that courts can avoid considering the public trust. For example, the Orange County Superior Court held that analysis of sea-level rise was required where the development might affect the inland migration of wetlands. 77 There, the
lead agency (the City of Oxnard) certified a final EIR for a mixed-use devel -
opment that would require an amendment to the City’s general and specific plan.
78 That development was located 3.4 miles inland of a wetland area, where a wetland restoration plan would be completed in the future by the state coastal conservancy.
79 The City addressed sea-level rise in the FEIR only to the extent necessary to dismiss public comments, and declined to analyze the effects of sea-level rise fully.
80 Although the EIR noted that the sea-level would rise 1.6–

6.6 feet in the next hundred years, the EIR did not map or analyze sea-level rise because it would not be possible to determine what the effect of the proj -
ects on the uncompleted wetlands preservation plan could be. 81 The court relied on three main arguments for holding that sea-level rise analysis was required in this narrow situation.
82 First, the court argued that
sea-level rise analysis in this instance was not reverse-CEQA because sea- level rise would have direct effects on environmental resources. Second, the court argued that sea-level rise should be analyzed so that an EIR may disclose to the public the effects on these resources (in this case, wetlands) over time.

The court recognized that “the research [on sea-level rise] all points in the

76. Marks
, 6 Cal. 3d 251 (1971).
7 7.

Sierra Club v. City of Oxnard, No. 56201100401161, 2012 WL 7659201, 50–51 (Cal.

Super. Oct. 15, 2012).

78. Id
.

79. Id.
at 13.

80. Id.
at 14.

81. Id
.

82. Id.
at 47–50.
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same direction, and that direction is the creation of a new paradigm in CEQA coastal land use analysis.”
83 The court further held that an EIR needs to con
-
sider not only the project’s immediate effect upon adjacent coastal wetlands but the projected long-term effect upon expected coastal wetlands migration over the projects life.
84 Deferring analysis of sea-level rise would be deferred mitigation, and that the public has a right to know about wetland migration with respect to the project.
85 Third, the court held both that the reverse-CEQA
paradigm did not fit this situation, as it involved the significant effects of the project on the environment.
86 The court did, however, note that if the case
were inserted into that paradigm at all, it would fit an exception to the gen -
eral rule: “Beyond the ultimate loss of coastal wetlands, as the coastal wetland moves inland toward the [project], the previously studied effects of the [proj -
ect] upon those wetlands will likely be exacerbated.”
87 The court’s approach may also be applied where sea-level rise could cause a development to impact on environmental resources. In Sierra Club v.

Oxnard
, a wetland was at issue, but there are other environmental resources that would be similarly affected when a project is in the way of sea-level rise.

For instance, where a project falls below mean high tide or comes into the path of a 100-year storm, there could be significant effects on the environmental resources listed in OPR ’s Appendix G. Analysis of sea-level rise in an EIR is a way for a lead agency to disclose to public officials and citizens exactly when the project will come into contact with the mean high tide line, and how likely that is to occur within the project’s lifetime. The court in Sierra Club v. Oxnard
applied this holding to assert that sea-level rise analysis should be conducted to determine the project’s
expected
impact on
future
wetland migration. This
same rationale could be applied to protect other resources in natural habitats on the coastline such as mineral resources, biological resources, and resources protected by the public trust doctrine.

Conclusion
In order to adequately forecast a development’s environmental impacts, an EIR should evaluate whether the development will impede the inland migration of shoreline caused by sea-level rise. Where a development impedes shoreline migration, there will be onerous burdens on protected environmental resources.

Local governments have regulatory tools aside from CEQA that they can use to affect positive coastal land use planning that considers accurate estimates of sea- level rise. More specifically, where an EIR is required for a discretionary project, CEQA becomes a unique tool for uniform disclosure of risk.

83. Sierra Club
, 2012 WL 7659201, at 47 .

84. Id.

85. Id.
at 49–50.

86. Id.
8 7.

Id.
41 A
s diurnal creatures, humans have long sought
methods to illuminate the night. In pre-industrial
times, artificial light was generated by burning various materials, including wood, oil, and even dried fish.

While these methods of lighting certainly influenced
animal behavior and ecology locally, such effects were
limited. The relatively recent invention and rapid prolif- eration of electric lights, however, have transformed the nighttime environment over substantial portions of the
Earth’s surface.

Ecologists have not entirely ignored the potential dis- ruption of ecological systems by artificial night lighting.

Several authors have written reviews of the potential
effects on ecosystems or taxonomic groups, published in the “gray” literature (Health Council of the Netherlands 2000; Hill 1990), conference proceedings (Outen 2002;
Schmiedel 2001), and journal articles (Frank 1988;
Verheijen 1985; Salmon 2003). This review attempts to
integrate the literature on the topic, and draws on a con- ference organized by the authors in 2002 titled
Ecological
Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting.

We identify the
roles that artificial night lighting plays in changing eco- logical interactions across taxa, as opposed to reviewing these effects by taxonomic group. We first discuss the scale and extent of ecological light pollution and its relation- ship to astronomical light pollution, as well as the mea- surement of light for ecological research. We then address the recorded and potential influences of artificial night lighting within the nested hierarchy of behavioral and
population ecology, community ecology, and ecosystem
ecology. While this hierarchy is somewhat artificial and certainly mutable, it illustrates the breadth of potential consequences of ecological light pollution. The important effects of light on the physiology of organisms (see Health Council of the Netherlands 2000) are not discussed here. /square6
Astronomical and ecological light pollution: scale
and extent
The term “light pollution” has been in use for a number of years, but in most circumstances refers to the degrada- tion of human views of the night sky. We want to clarify that this is “astronomical light pollution”, where stars and other celestial bodies are washed out by light that is
either directed or reflected upward. This is a broad-scale phenomenon, with hundreds of thousands of light sources cumulatively contributing to increased nighttime illumi- nation of the sky; the light reflected back from the sky is called “sky glow” (Figure 1). We describe artificial light that alters the natural patterns of light and dark in ecosys- tems as “ecological light pollution”. Verheijen (1985)
proposed the term “photopollution” to mean “artificial
light having adverse effects on wildlife”. Because pho- topollution literally means “light pollution” and because light pollution is so widely understood today to describe the degradation of the view of the night sky and the
human experience of the night, we believe that a more
descriptive term is now necessary. Ecological light pollu- tion includes direct glare, chronically increased illumina- 191
© The Ecological Society of America
www.frontiersinecology.org

REVIEWS

REVIEWS

REVIEWS
Ecological light pollution
Travis Longcore and Catherine Rich
Ecologists have long studied the critical role of natural light in regulating species interactions, but, with limited exceptions, have not investigated the consequences of artificial night lighting. In the past century, the extent and intensity of artificial night lighting has increased such that it has substantial effects on the biology and ecology of species in the wild. We distinguish “astronomical light pollution”, which obscures the view of the night sky, from “ecological light pollution”, which alters natural light regimes in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Some of the catastrophic consequences of light for certain taxonomic groups are well known, such as the deaths of migratory birds around tall lighted structures, and those of hatchling sea turtles disoriented by lights on their natal beaches. The more subtle influences of artificial night lighting on the behavior and community ecology of species are less well recognized, and constitute a new focus for research in ecology and a pressing conservation challenge.

Front Ecol Environ
2004; 2(4): 191–198
The Urban Wildlands Group, PO Box 24020, Los Angeles, CA 90024-0020 ([email protected])
In a nutshell:
•
Ecological light pollution includes chronic or periodically increased illumination, unexpected changes in illumination, and direct glare
•
Animals can experience increased orientation or disorienta- tion from additional illumination and are attracted to or repulsed by glare, which affects foraging, reproduction, commu- nication, and other critical behaviors
•
Artificial light disrupts interspecific interactions evolved in natural patterns of light and dark, with serious implications for community ecology
42 Ecological light pollution T Longcore and C Rich
tion, and temporary, unexpected fluctuations in light-
ing. Sources of ecological light pollution include sky
glow, lighted buildings and towers, streetlights, fishing boats, security lights, lights on vehicles, flares on off- shore oil platforms, and even lights on undersea
research vessels, all of which can disrupt ecosystems to varying degrees. The phenomenon therefore involves
potential effects across a range of spatial and temporal scales.

The extent of ecological light pollution is global
(Elvidge
et al
. 1997; Figure 2). The first atlas of artificial
night sky brightness illustrates that astronomical light pollution extends to every inhabited continent (Cinzano et al
. 2001). Cinzano
et al
. (2001) calculate that only
40% of Americans live where it becomes sufficiently
dark at night for the human eye to make a complete
transition from cone to rod vision and that 18.7% of the terrestrial surface of the Earth is exposed to night sky brightness that is polluted by astronomical standards.

Ecosystems may be affected by these levels of illumina- tion and lights that do not contribute to sky glow may
still have ecological consequences, ensuring that ecolog- ical light pollution afflicts an even greater proportion of the Earth. Lighted fishing fleets, offshore oil platforms, and cruise ships bring the disruption of artificial night lighting to the world’s oceans.

The tropics may be especially sensitive to alterations in natural diel (ie over a 24-hour period) patterns of light and dark because of the year-round constancy of daily
cycles (Gliwicz 1999). A shortened or brighter night is more likely to affect tropical species adapted to diel pat- terns with minimal seasonal variation than extratropical species adapted to substantial seasonal variation. Of
course, temperate and polar zone species active only dur- ing a portion of the year would be excluded from this gen- eralization. Species in temperate zones will
also be susceptible to disruptions if they
depend on seasonal day length cues to trigger
critical behaviors.
/square6
Measurements and units
Measurement of ecological light pollution
often involves determination of illumination
at a given place. Illumination is the amount
of light incident per unit area – not the only
measurement relevant to ecological light pol-
lution, but the most common. Light varies in
intensity (the number of photons per unit
area) and spectral content (expressed by
wavelength). Ideally, ecologists should mea-
sure illumination in photons per square meter
per second with associated measurements of
the wavelengths of light present. More often,
illumination is measured in lux (or footcan-
dles, the non-SI unit), which expresses the
brightness of light as perceived by the human
eye. The lux measurement places more emphasis on
wavelengths of light that the human eye detects best and less on those that humans perceive poorly. Because other organisms perceive light differently – including wave-
lengths not visible to humans – future research on ecolog- ical light pollution should identify these responses and measure light accordingly. For example, Gal
et al
. (1999)
calculated the response curve of mysid shrimp to light
and reported illumination in lux adjusted for the spectral sensitivity of the species.

Ecologists are faced with a practical difficulty when
communicating information about light conditions. Lux
is the standard used by nearly all lighting designers, light- ing engineers, and environmental regulators; communi-
cation with them requires reporting in this unit. Yet the use of lux ignores biologically relevant information. High- pressure sodium lights, for instance, will attract moths because of the presence of ultraviolet wavelengths, while low-pressure sodium lights of the same intensity, but not producing ultraviolet light, will not (Rydell 1992).

Nevertheless, we use lux here, both because of the need to communicate with applied professionals, and because
of its current and past widespread usage. As this research field develops, however, measurements of radiation and
spectrum relevant to the organisms in question should be used, even though lux will probably continue to be the
preferred unit for communication with professionals in
other disciplines.

Ecologists also measure aspects of the light environ-
ment other than absolute illumination levels. A sudden
change in illumination is disruptive for some species
(Buchanan 1993), so percent change in illumination,
rate, or similar measures may be relevant. Ecologists may also measure luminance (ie brightness) of light sources that are visible to organisms.
192
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©
The Ecological Society of America
Figure 1.

Diagram of ecological and astronomical light pollution.

Astronomical light pollution reduces the
number of visible stars
Unshielded lights can cause both
astronomical and ecological light
pollution
Tall, lighted structures
are collision hazards
Shielded lights
reduce astronomical
light pollution but
may still cause
ecological light
pollution
Sky glow from cities
disrupts distant
ecosystems
43 T Longcore and C Rich Ecological light pollution
/square6
Behavioral and population ecology
Ecological light pollution has demonstrable effects on the behavioral and population ecology of organisms in natural settings. As a whole, these effects derive from changes in ori- entation, disorientation, or misorientation, and attraction or repulsion from the altered light environment, which in turn may affect foraging, reproduction, migration, and communi- cation.

Orientation/disorientation and attraction/repulsion
Orientation and disorientation are responses to ambient illumination (ie the amount of light incident on objects in an environment). In contrast, attraction and repulsion
occur in response to the light sources themselves and are therefore responses to luminance or the brightness of the source of light (Health Council of the Netherlands 2000).

Increased illumination may extend diurnal or crepuscular behaviors into the nighttime environment by improving an animal’s ability to orient itself. Many usually diurnal birds (Hill 1990) and reptiles (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), for example, forage under artificial lights. This has been termed the “night light niche” for reptiles and seems benefi- cial for those species that can exploit it, but not for their prey (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).

In addition to foraging, orientation under artificial illumi- nation may induce other behaviors, such as territorial
singing in birds (Bergen and Abs 1997). For the northern mockingbird (
Mimus polyglottos
), males sing at night before
mating, but once mated only sing at night in artificially lighted areas (Derrickson 1988) or during the full moon.

The effect of these light-induced behaviors on fitness is unknown.

Constant artificial night lighting may also disorient
organisms accustomed to navigating in a dark environment.

The best-known example of this is the disorientation of hatchling sea turtles emerging from nests on sandy beaches.

Under normal circumstances, hatchlings move away from
low, dark silhouettes (historically, those of dune vegeta- tion), allowing them to crawl quickly to the ocean. With beachfront lighting, the silhouettes that would have cued movement are no longer perceived, resulting in disorienta- tion (Salmon
et al
. 1995). Lighting also affects the egg-lay-
ing behavior of female sea turtles. (For reviews of effects on sea turtles, see Salmon 2003 and Witherington 1997).

Changes in light level may disrupt orientation in noctur- nal animals. The range of anatomical adaptations to allow night vision is broad (Park 1940), and rapid increases in light can blind animals. For frogs, a quick increase in illumi- nation causes a reduction in visual capability from which the recovery time may be minutes to hours (Buchanan
1993). After becoming adjusted to a light, frogs may be attracted to it as well (Jaeger and Hailman 1973; Figure 3).

Birds can be disoriented and entrapped by lights at night (Ogden 1996). Once a bird is within a lighted zone at
night, it may become “trapped” and will not leave the
lighted area. Large numbers of nocturnally migrating birds are therefore affected when meteorological conditions
bring them close to lights, for instance, during inclement weather or late at night when they tend to fly lower.
193
© The Ecological Society of America
www.frontiersinecology.org
Figure 2.

Distribution of artificial lights visible from space. Produced using cloud-free portions of low-light imaging data acquired by the US Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program Operational Linescan System. Four types of lights are identified: (1) human settlements – cities, towns, and villages (white), (2) fires – defined as ephemeral lights on land (red), (3) gas flares (green),
and (4) heavily lit fishing boats (blue). See Elvidge
et al.
(2001) for details. Image, data processing, and descriptive text by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Geophysical Data Center. 44 Ecological light pollution T Longcore and C Rich
Within the sphere of lights, birds may collide with each other or a structure, become exhausted, or be taken by
predators. Birds that are waylaid by buildings in urban areas at night often die in collisions with windows as they try to escape during the day. Artificial lighting has
attracted birds to smokestacks, lighthouses (Squires and Hanson 1918), broadcast towers
(Ogden 1996), boats (Dick and
Donaldson 1978), greenhouses, oil
platforms (Wiese
et al.
2001), and
other structures at night, resulting
in direct mortality, and thus inter-
fering with migration routes.

Many groups of insects, of which
moths are one well-known example
(Frank 1988), are attracted to
lights. Other taxa showing the
same attraction include lacewings,
beetles, bugs, caddisflies, crane flies,
midges, hoverflies, wasps, and bush
crickets (Eisenbeis and Hassel
2000; Kolligs 2000; Figure 4).

Attraction depends on the spec-
trum of light – insect collectors use
ultraviolet light because of its
attractive qualities – and the char-
acteristics of other lights in the
vicinity.

Nonflying arthropods vary in their reaction to lights.

Some nocturnal spiders are negatively phototactic (ie
repelled by light), whereas others will exploit light if avail- able (Nakamura and Yamashita 1997). Some insects are
always positively phototactic as an adaptive behavior and others always photonegative (Summers 1997). In arthro-
pods, these responses may also be influenced by the frequent correlations between light, humidity, and temperature.

Natural resource managers can exploit the responses of
animals to lights. Lights are sometimes used to attract fish to ladders, allowing them to bypass dams and power plants (Haymes
et al
. 1984). Similarly, lights can attract larval
fish to coral reefs (Munday
et al
. 1998). In the terrestrial
realm, dispersing mountain lions avoid lighted areas to such a degree that Beier (1995) suggests installing lights to deter them from entering habitats dead-ending in areas
where humans live.

Reproduction
Reproductive behaviors may be altered by artificial night lighting. Female
Physalaemus pustulosus
frogs, for exam-
ple, are less selective about mate choice when light levels are increased, presumably preferring to mate quickly and avoid the increased predation risk of mating activity
(Rand
et al
. 1997). Night lighting may also inhibit
amphibian movement to and from breeding areas by stim-
ulating phototactic behavior. Bryant Buchanan (pers
comm) reports that frogs in an experimental enclosure
stopped mating activity during night football games,
when lights from a nearby stadium increased sky glow.

Mating choruses resumed only when the enclosure was
covered to shield the frogs from the light.

In birds, some evidence suggests that artificial night
lighting affects the choice of nest site. De Molenaar
et al.
194
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©
The Ecological Society of America
Figure 4.

Thousands of mayflies carpet the ground around a security light at Millecoquins Point in Naubinway on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.

Courtesy of PJ DeVries
Figure 3.

Attraction of frogs to a candle set out on a small raft.

Illustration by Charles Copeland of an experiment in northern Maine or Canada described by William J Long (1901). Twelve or fifteen bullfrogs (
Rana catesbeiana
) climbed on to the small
raft before it flipped over.
45 T Longcore and C Rich Ecological light pollution
(
2000) investigated the effects of roadway
lighting on black-tailed godwits (
Limosa l.
limosa
) in wet grassland habitats. Breeding
densities of godwits were recorded over 2
years, comparing lighted and unlighted con-
ditions near a roadway and near light poles
installed in a wet grassland away from the
road influence. When all other habitat fac-
tors were taken into account, the density of
nests was slightly but statistically lower up to
300 m away from the lighting at roadway and
control sites. The researchers also noted that
birds nesting earlier in the year chose sites
farther away from the lighting, while those
nesting later filled in sites closer to the lights.

Communication
Visual communication within and between
species may be influenced by artificial night
lighting. Some species use light to communi-
cate, and are therefore especially susceptible
to disruption. Female glow-worms attract males up to
45 m away with bioluminescent flashes; the presence of
artificial lighting reduces the visibility of these communi- cations. Similarly, the complex visual communication
system of fireflies could be impaired by stray light (Lloyd 1994).

Artificial night lighting could also alter communication patterns as a secondary effect. Coyotes (
Canis latrans
)
group howl and group yip-howl more during the new
moon, when it is darkest. Communication is necessary
either to reduce trespassing from other packs, or to assem- ble packs to hunt larger prey during dark conditions
(Bender
et al
. 1996). Sky glow could increase ambient illu-
mination to eliminate this pattern in affected areas.

Because of the central role of vision in orientation and behavior of most animals, it is not surprising that artificial lighting alters behavior. This causes an immediate conser- vation concern for some species, while for other species the influence may seem to be positive. Such “positive”
effects, however, may have negative consequences within the context of community ecology.
/square6
Community ecology
The behaviors exhibited by individual animals in
response to ambient illumination (orientation, disorien- tation) and to luminance (attraction, repulsion) influ- ence community interactions, of which competition and
predation are examples.

Competition
Artificial night lighting could disrupt the interactions of groups of species that show resource partitioning across illumination gradients. For example, in natural commu-
nities, some foraging times are partitioned among species that prefer different levels of lighting. The squirrel
treefrog (
Hyla squirrela
) is able to orient and forage at
lighting levels as low as 10
-
5 lux and under natural condi-
tions typically will stop foraging at illuminations above 10 -
3 lux (Buchanan 1998). The western toad (
Bufo
boreas
) forages only at illuminations between 10
-
1 and 10
-
5 lux, while the tailed frog (
Ascaphus truei
) forages only
during the darkest part of the night at below 10
-
5 lux
(Hailman 1984). While these three species are not neces- sarily sympatric (ie inhabiting the same area), and differ in other niche dimensions, they illustrate the division of the light gradient by foragers.

Many bat species are attracted to insects that congre-
gate around light sources (Frank 1988). Although it
may seem that this is a positive effect, the increased
food concentration benefits only those species that
exploit light sources and could therefore result in
altered community structure. Faster-flying species of
bats congregate around lights to feed on insects, but
other, slower-flying species avoid lights (Blake
et al
.
1994; Rydell and Baagøe 1996).

Changes in competitive communities occur as diurnal
species move into the “night light niche” (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This concept, as originally described, applies to reptiles, but easily extends to other taxa, such as spiders (Frank pers comm) and birds (Hill 1990; Figure 5).

Predation
Although it may seem beneficial for diurnal species to be able to forage longer under artificial lights, any gains from increased activity time can be offset by increased preda- tion risk (Gotthard 2000). The balance between gains
from extended foraging time and risk of increased preda- 195
© The Ecological Society of America
www.frontiersinecology.org
Figure 5.

Crowned hornbill (
Tockus alboterminatus
) hawking insects at a
light at the Kibale Forest National Park, Uganda.

Courtesy of PJ DeVries
46 Ecological light pollution T Longcore and C Rich
tion is a central topic for research on small mammals, rep- tiles, and birds (Kotler 1984; Lima 1998). Small rodents forage less at high illumination levels (Lima 1998), a ten- dency also exhibited by some lagomorphs (Gilbert and
Boutin 1991), marsupials (Laferrier 1997), snakes
(Klauber 1939), bats (Rydell 1992), fish (Gibson 1978), aquatic invertebrates (Moore
et al
. 2000), and other taxa.

Unexpected changes in light conditions may disrupt
predator–prey relationships. Gliwicz (1986, 1999) des-
cribes high predation by fish on zooplankton during nights when the full moon rose hours after sunset. Zooplankton had migrated to the surface to forage under cover of dark- ness, only to be illuminated by the rising moon and sub- jected to intense predation. This “lunar light trap”
(Gliwicz 1986) illustrates a natural occurrence, but unex- pected illumination from human sources could disrupt
predator–prey interactions in a similar manner, often to the benefit of the predator.

Available research shows that artificial night lighting disrupts predator–prey relationships, which is consistent with the documented importance of natural light regimes in mediating such interactions. In one example, harbor
seals (
Phoca vitulina
) congregated under artificial lights to
eat juvenile salmonids as they migrated downstream; turn- ing the lights off reduced predation levels (Yurk and Trites 2000). Nighttime illumination at urban crow roosts was
higher than at control sites, presumably because this helps the crows avoid predation from owls (Gorenzel and
Salmon 1995). Desert rodents reduced foraging activity
when exposed to the light of a single camp lantern (Kotler 1984). Frank (1988) reviews predation by bats, birds,
skunks, toads, and spiders on moths attracted to artificial lights. Mercury vapor lights, in particular, disrupt the interaction between bats and tympanate moths by inter-
fering with moth detection of ultrasonic chirps used by bats in echolocation, leaving moths unable to take their normal evasive action (Svensson and Rydell 1998).

From these examples, it follows that community struc-
ture will be altered where light affects interspecific inter- actions. A “perpetual full moon” from artificial lights will favor light-tolerant species and exclude others. If the dark- est natural conditions never occur, those species that max- imize foraging during the new moon could eventually be
compromised, at risk of failing to meet monthly energy
budgets. The resulting community structure would be sim- plified, and these changes could in turn affect ecosystem characteristics.
/square6
Ecosystem effects
The cumulative effects of behavioral changes induced by artificial night lighting on competition and predation
have the potential to disrupt key ecosystem functions.

The spillover effects from ecological light pollution on aquatic invertebrates illustrates this point. Many aquatic invertebrates, such as zooplankton, move up and down
within the water column during a 24-hour period, in a
behavior known as “diel vertical migration”. Diel vertical migration presumably results from a need to avoid preda- tion during lighted conditions, so many zooplankton for- age near water surfaces only during dark conditions
(Gliwicz 1986). Light dimmer than that of a half moon
(<10
-
1 lux) is sufficient to influence the vertical distribu- tion of some aquatic invertebrates, and indeed patterns of diel vertical migration change with the lunar cycle
(Dodson 1990).

Moore
et al
. (2000) documented the effect of artificial
light on the diel migration of the zooplankton
Daphnia
in
the wild. Artificial illumination decreased the magnitude of diel migrations, both in the range of vertical movement and the number of individuals migrating. The researchers hypothesize that this disruption of diel vertical migration may have substantial detrimental effects on ecosystem
health. With fewer zooplankton migrating to the surface to graze, algae populations may increase. Such algal
blooms would then have a series of adverse effects on
water quality (Moore
et al
. 2000).

The reverberating effects of community changes caused
by artificial night lighting could influence other ecosys- tem functions. Although the outcomes are not yet pre-
dictable, and redundancy will buffer changes, indications are that light-influenced ecosystems will suffer from
important changes attributable to artificial light alone and in combination with other disturbances. Even
remote areas may be exposed to increased illumination
from sky glow, but the most noticeable effects will occur in those areas where lights are close to natural habitats.

This may be in wilderness where summer getaways are
built, along the expanding front of suburbanization, near the wetlands and estuaries that are often the last open spaces in cities, or on the open ocean, where cruise ships, squid boats, and oil derricks light the night.
/square6
Conclusions
Our understanding of the full range of ecological conse- quences of artificial night lighting is still limited, and the field holds many opportunities for basic and applied
research. Studies of natural populations are necessary to investigate hypotheses generated in the laboratory, evi- dence of lunar cycles in wild populations, and natural his- tory observations. If current trends continue, the influ- ence of stray light on ecosystems will expand in
geographic scope and intensity. Today, 20% of the area of the coterminous US lies within 125 m of a road (Riiters and Wickham 2003). Lights follow roads, and the propor- tion of ecosystems uninfluenced by altered light regimes is decreasing. We believe that many ecologists have
neglected to consider artificial night lighting as a relevant environmental factor, while conservationists have cer-
tainly neglected to include the nighttime environment in reserve and corridor design.

Successful investigation of ecological light pollution
will require collaboration with physical scientists and 196
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©
The Ecological Society of America
47 T Longcore and C Rich Ecological light pollution
engineers to improve equipment to measure light charac- teristics at ecologically relevant levels under diverse field conditions. Researchers should give special considera-
tion to the tropics, where the constancy of day–night
lighting patterns has probably resulted in narrow niche breadths relative to illumination. Aquatic ecosystems
deserve increased attention as well, because despite the central importance of light to freshwater and marine
ecology, consideration of artificial lighting has so far been limited. Research on the effects of artificial night lighting will enhance understanding of urban ecosystems – the two National Science Foundation (NSF) urban
Long Term Ecological Research sites are ideal locations for such efforts.

Careful research focusing on artificial night lighting will probably reveal it to be a powerful force structuring local communities by disrupting competition and predator–prey interactions. Researchers will face the challenge of disen- tangling the confounding and cumulative effects of other facets of human disturbance with which artificial night lighting will often be correlated, such as roads, urban development, noise, exotic species, animal harvest, and resource extraction. To do so, measurements of light dis- turbance should be included routinely as part of environ- mental monitoring protocols, such as the NSF’s National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON). Future
research is likely to reveal artificial night lighting to be an important, independent, and cumulative factor in the dis- ruption of natural ecosystems, and a major challenge for their preservation.

Ecologists have studied diel and lunar patterns in the
behavior of organisms for the greater part of a century (see Park 1940 and references therein), and the deaths of birds from lights for nearly as long (Squires and Hanson 1918).

Humans have now so altered the natural patterns of light and dark that these new conditions must be afforded a
more central role in research on species and ecosystems beyond the instances that leave carcasses on the ground. /square6
Acknowledgements
We thank PJ DeVries for his photographs, and B Tuttle
and C Elvidge for the satellite image. Research was sup- ported in part by the Conservation and Research
Foundation. We are grateful for constructive comments
and advice from W Briggs, BW Buchanan, KD Frank, JE
Lloyd, JR Longcore, MV Moore, WA Montevecchi, G
Perry, and M Salmon.
/square6
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49 sustainability
Article
Lighting Professionals versus Light Pollution
Experts? Investigating Views on an Emerging
Environmental Concern
Nona Schulte-Römer
1,
*
, Josiane Meier
2 , Etta Dannemann
3 and Max Söding
1,2
1 Department of Urban and Environmental Sociology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, 04318 Leipzig, Germany; [email protected]
2 School of Planning-Building-Environment, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany; [email protected]
3 Studio Dannemann, Baerwaldstraße 63A, 10961 Berlin, Germany; [email protected] *
Correspondence: [email protected]
Received: 25 February 2019; Accepted: 15 March 2019; Published: 21 March 2019 /gid00030/gid00035/gid00032/gid00030/gid00038/gid00001/gid00033/gid00042/gid00045/gid00001 /gid00048/gid00043/gid00031/gid00028/gid00047/gid00032/gid00046 Abstract:

Concerns about the potential negative effects of artificial light at night on humans, flora and fauna, were originally raised by astronomers and environmentalists. Yet, we observe a growing interest in what is called light pollution among the general public and in the lighting field. Although lighting professionals are often critical of calling light ‘pollution’, they increasingly acknowledge the problem and are beginning to act accordingly. Are those who illuminate joining forces with those who take a critical stance towards artificial light at night? We explore this question in more detail based on the results of a non-representative worldwide expert survey. In our analysis, we distinguish between “lighting professionals” with occupational backgrounds linked to lighting design and the lighting industry, and “light pollution experts” with mostly astronomy- and environment-related professional backgrounds, and explore their opposing and shared views vis- à
-vis issues of light
pollution. Our analysis reveals that despite seemingly conflicting interests, lighting professionals and light pollution experts largely agree on the problem definition and problem-solving approaches.

However, we see diverging views regarding potential obstacles to light pollution mitigation and associated governance challenges.

Keywords:
light pollution; sustainable lighting; light planning; expert survey; ALAN

1. Introduction
Light pollution broadly describes unwanted or excess artificial lighting at night, and the negative effects artificial illumination can have on humans and the living environment. While the concept is rather ill-defined, it has received increased public attention in recent years. The concerns are reflected in growing numbers of media reports, fuelled by public campaigns and findings based on scientific evidence from various disciplines. Biologists have highlighted the negative effects of artificial light at night on species as diverse as birds, bats, fish, insects, water organisms, mammals and plants [
1 –
3 ]. Medical research suggests that light at the wrong time confuses the human circadian rhythm with negative effects on people’s sleep, which may impact their health [ 4 ,
5 ]. Astronomers
highlight the reduced visibility of the night sky [
6 ], and in the social sciences and humanities, natural darkness is being rediscovered and re-evaluated as a cultural asset and distinct social space [ 7 ,
8 ].

These multifaceted issues reverberate in civic complaints about light nuisances in urban and natural environments, and in new policies for outdoor lighting such as the national light pollution laws in France and Slovenia [
9 ,
10 ]. Together with concerned individuals and advocacy groups, researchers who take a critical view of artificial light at night can be considered as an emerging community of Sustainability
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10.3390/su11061696
www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
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light pollution experts. They draw attention to the unwanted side effects of artificial illumination by producing, exchanging and publicizing information and knowledge via social media, mass media and scientific journals, and at events. They also actively propose new planning and policy approaches as they question established light practices and reasons for illuminating public spaces, buildings, signs or landscapes.

The new notion that light is also a pollutant problematizes artificial lighting, which is usually overwhelmingly positively connoted [
11 –
13 ]. It is therefore not surprising that lighting professionals, who develop lighting technology, sell lighting products, and plan and design lighting schemes, have not been the loudest voices in debates about light pollution. Nevertheless, lighting designers, light planners and manufacturers, who are traditionally concerned with the improvement and dissemination of light sources and installations, have begun discussing scientific evidence for environmental and health concerns in conferences and professional journals, and are beginning to adjust their practices, products and professional education accordingly [
14 ,
15 ].

The recognition of the problem by those who illuminate and create lighting is highly relevant when it comes to tackling the issue of light pollution. However, this raises the question of how the views of actors in the lighting field compare to those of the researchers and activists that have adopted a critical stance toward lighting. How do the professional interests of lighting designers, planners and manufacturers align with the recommendations and claims of light pollution experts? Where do they agree or disagree? What are the practical and political implications of their respective perspectives? In this paper, we explore and contrast the views of lighting professionals and light pollution experts with the goal of highlighting common ground and conflicting views. Our analysis is grounded in qualitative research and professional experience, and draws on the results of an online expert survey on light pollution. Conducted in 2018, it was completed by 205 participants. They include lighting designers, planners and lighting engineers or manufacturers, which we categorize as “lighting professionals” (n = 67), and respondents who work on light pollution issues and largely have astronomical and environmental backgrounds, which we identify as “light pollution experts” ( n = 89
).

Our findings suggest that lighting professionals surprisingly often agree with light pollution experts, not only in their views regarding light pollution, but also when it comes to recommending solutions to the problem. Their views diverge more when it comes to identifying obstacles to light pollution mitigation. These results also have practical relevance, as they reveal which policy options for sustainable lighting can find support in both groups and where alternative or opposing views should be tested and further discussed.

2. Materials and Methods
This paper is part of a larger research project, and is informed by our previous professional and research experience in the fields of lighting and light pollution [ 16 ]. The idea for this study emerged
from our observation that the lighting community and the emerging community of light pollution experts engage in arenas that are in many ways worlds apart, but at the same time, closely connected through their focus on artificial light. The outsets of the two groups seemingly contradict each other:
while lighting professionals earn their living creating light, light pollution experts are concerned with reducing artificial light at night. At the same time, light pollution has clearly become a point of debate in the lighting world, and the light pollution community aims to include lighting professionals [ 17 ,
18 ].

Based on these observations and our empirical and practical knowledge of lighting practices and debates around light pollution and its mitigation, we developed a set of theses in order to explore how the views and goals of lighting professionals and light pollution experts compare. These assumptions were then tested in our online expert survey.

2.1. Data Collection Based on an Online Expert Survey
The questionnaire was developed for “experts”, i.e., respondents with practical or theoretical knowledge of and interest in artificial lighting and/or light pollution [ 19 ]. The survey design ensured
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this expertise in three ways: First, respondents were asked to outline their “light-related activities”.

Second, some questions were highly specific and demanded an in-depth understanding of lighting issues, as pre-testers confirmed. Third, we consciously chose to use the term “light pollution”, including in the survey’s title. By using the term so explicitly, we specifically addressed respondents who are familiar with the issue. The survey was only distributed in English, which could possibly result in an under-representation of experts that are not part of the relevant English-language discourse.

The expert survey was launched in March, 2018, and was online for two months. The invitation was circulated internationally via e-mail, twitter and professional networks, creating a snowball effect (more information at [
16 ]). Clearly, this sampling strategy could not produce a representative sample.

However, in line with our exploratory approach, it allowed as many experts as possible who wished to share their opinions on light pollution to do so.

The questionnaire contained both quantitative and qualitative elements. Participants were asked to tick boxes to describe their personal background and to evaluate specific aspects around the issue of light pollution on Likert scales from one to five. In addition to single and multiple choice questions, open questions allowed the respondents to answer using their own words and to add aspects not included in our suggested answers for closed questions. Our questions covered three thematic areas:
(1) The definition of and opinions on light pollution; (2) the governance challenge in terms of main obstacles, clashing interests and responsibilities; (3) possible solutions in the form of recommendations.

2.2. Group-Specific Data Analysis
The survey was completed by 205 participants. For the stakeholder-specific analysis, we identified and created the group categories “lighting professionals” and “light pollution experts” within our sample. While the concept of “lighting professionals” is quite straightforward and includes people who professionally plan, design, or produce artificial light and lighting technology, the notion of “light pollution experts” calls for an explanation. We conceptualize this group as a heterogeneous “issue public” [
20 ] consisting mostly of astronomers, conservationists, natural and social scientists who problematize artificial light at night (ALAN) from their various viewpoints. In reality, the two groups can overlap. At an individual level, there are lighting professionals that engage heavily in raising awareness for light pollution and developing solutions for its mitigation, as well as persons with backgrounds in fields such as astrophysics or biology who have acquired detailed knowledge of lighting technology and lighting practices and e.g. advise municipalities on sustainable lighting.

While we are aware of these overlaps, we nevertheless distinguish between lighting professionals and light pollution experts on the basis of their different foci and fields of activity. Table 1 outlines the
answers to both closed and open questions, on the basis of which we categorized the respondents.

The categorization process left us with a sample of 156 respondents: 89 light pollution experts and 67 lighting professionals. The respondents were aged between 20 and 79, and about one third was female. Most of them (101; 65%) were based in Europe, 29 (19%) in Anglo America, 13 (8%) in Australia/New Zealand, 5 (3%) in Middle Eastern or African countries, 4 (3%) in Latin America and 3 (2%) in Asia (1 answer missing).

Based on this data, we performed our analysis in three steps using the software R. First, we studied relative frequencies and mean values to identify answers where the two groups’ views converge or diverge. Second, where mean values and relative frequencies differed considerably, we performed regression analyses to test the impact of participants’ occupations and whether divergences can be better explained by other independent variables. To be more precise, we tested in binomial logistic regression models for the impact of occupation (light pollution experts or lighting professionals), place of residence (Europe or Anglo America/Oceania and Anglo America or Europe/Oceania as well as urban or not), age (in years), first encounter with light pollution (number of years) and gender (male or female, the two “other” responses were considered as “missing”, see Table S1 and Figure S1).

We found that occupational backgrounds were indeed the best predictor, while age, gender or place of residence were rarely significant. The dependent variable was the approval of the respective 52 Sustainability
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item (4 and 5 on a scale of 1 to 5). Third, open statements helped us confirm shared opinions and understand differences. In line with our research interest and in light of our non-representative sample, we focused more on converging views than on differences, which we had expected to be dominant, as outlined in the following. Figures are produced with the Microsoft software Excel.

Table 1.

Categorization of respondents based on “light-related” and “other” main occupations.

Categories Based On Closed Questions
Regarding The Respondents’ Light-Related
Main Occupation
Categories Based On Open Answers
Regarding “Other” Than Light-Related
Main Occupations.

Lighting professionals
(N = 67; 25 females, 41
males, 1 other; aged
between 26 and 79)
•
Architectural and decorative lighting
design (indoor/outdoor)
•
Functional light planning (streets,
parking lots, etc.)
•
Development of urban lighting
concepts/master plans
•
Light art/artistic work using light
(no answer)
•
Marketing and/or the sale of
lighting products
•
Lighting technology research
and development
•
Providing of lighting or information on
lighting (via online platforms,
electronics engineering services, as part
of energy provision and consulting in
developing countries).

Light pollution experts
(N = 89; 23 females, 65
males, 1 other; aged
between 20 and 75)
•
Environmental protection related
to lighting
•
Raising awareness for light pollution
•
Astrosciences and -technology related
occupations (e.g., professional or
amateur astronomers, airglow
researchers, educators in planetariums)
•
Environment-related occupations
(including scientific work in biology,
chronobiology or the environmental
sciences, educational work in nature
reserves and parks, journalism, etc.)
•
Other research related to the effects of
lighting (university lecturers and
researchers of various disciplines,
including law, archaeology, history,
sociology, physiology, etc.)
•
Raising awareness for light pollution
(non-profit activists, voluntary dark-sky
educational work, etc.)
•
Retired respondents with an interest in
astronomy and light
pollution mitigation.

3. A Conceptual Framework: Exploring Expert Perspectives on Light Pollution In recent years, initial studies have explored the general populations’ views on lighting and light pollution. For instance, Lyytimäki and Rinne [
21 ] carried out an online survey to understand
how people in Finland perceive and respond to light trespass and other light nuisances (n=2053).

In Germany, Besecke and Hänsch [
22 ] explored how residents of an inner-city street of Berlin and inhabitants of a nearby suburban community perceived light and darkness before and after street lighting refurbishments to LED lighting. Green et al. [ 23 ] used ethnographic data, household survey
and documentary sources to explore responses to street lighting reductions in eight areas of England and Wales. This study complements this strand of research by providing results on expert
perspectives
on the topic. Expert perspectives are relevant as outdoor lighting has long been delegated to expert systems and is only just re-emerging as a public issue [ 24 ]. In contrast to studies of the general
public, which are methodologically challenging as they demand asking people about their implicit practical knowledge about lighting [
25 ], focusing on experts makes it possible to investigate the issue—including its technical aspects—in more depth and detail, given the respondents’ higher level of previous engagement with specificities of the topic. Other than most laypersons, they pay attention 53 Sustainability
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to light and darkness and also have a vocabulary to express their observations and feelings about lighting. Moreover, expert opinions are also particularly relevant as they shape realities of artificial light and natural darkness by planning, designing or contesting lighting.

Since we could not draw on existing expert surveys, we had to come up with our own conceptual framework for assessing the group-specific views. Social-scientific theory suggests that expert groups form “communities of practice” with specific understandings and shared views on their respective issues of concern [
26 ]. Recent discourses in the two stakeholder groups allowed us to develop the three thematic areas covered in the survey based on explicit assumptions, as outlined below (Table 2 ).

In line with our empirical observation, Chall
é
at and colleagues [
19 ] have described two camps vis-
à
-vis
lighting in France: lighting professionals who promote a technical view on “light nuisance” and astronomers, conservationists and citizens who take an environmental stance against “light pollution”.

3.1. Light Pollution Experts and the Negative Side-Effects of Artificial Light at Night (ALAN) To conceptualize the views of the light pollution experts on a global scale, we can draw on the growing body of scientific literature on the effects of artificial light at night (ALAN), which is also the basis for social scientific and planning discourses on ALAN as well as for activists. This interdisciplinary and emerging field can be roughly divided into three areas: Research mainly by astronomers and astrophysicists on sky glow and light trespass as an impediment to the observation of the universe; biological research investigating the impact of ALAN on individual animal and plant species, and increasingly, on ecosystems; medical research exploring the chronobiological hormonal effects that are triggered by ALAN and are suspected to increase the risk of depression, cancer, cardio-vascular diseases and obesity.

Experts who work on these issues have significantly shaped the notion of light pollution.

Astronomers, both professionals and amateurs, are a driving force behind initiatives for dark-sky protection. With the spread of electric lighting in the early 20th century, they were among the first to criticize and quantify the reduced visibility of celestial objects [ 27 ]. Today, they explore and develop
new instruments and methods for assessing the illumination of the night sky [ 6 ,
28 –
30 ]. They also
warn that blue-rich LED light scatters more strongly in the atmosphere and will, in combination with rebound effects, increase not only sky glow but also glare [ 31 ,
32 ].

Biologists and ecologists have been studying the effects of artificial light at night on birds, insects, aquatic organisms, reptiles, mammals and plants to understand and assess its impact on these different species as well as entire ecosystems. In recent years, they have substantiated their suspicion that light affects animal behavior (e.g., through distraction) and disturbs the circadian rhythm of living organisms more generally, both with negative consequences for the finely orchestrated processes of all life that have evolved over millennia under planetary rhythms of light and darkness [ 1 ]. All
light spectra can be potentially harmful, as different species are sensitive to different types of light.

Therefore, full-spectrum light sources and blue-rich light seem to be more problematic than light with a narrow spectrum and longer wavelengths, as these will probably affect more species [ 33 ,
34 ]. Since
circadian processes also govern the human body, exposure to ALAN, and particularly to blue-rich light, has also become a public health concern [
5 ]. Medical studies suggest that ALAN is a stressor for people who work night shifts or are exposed to blue-rich light at night, such as that emitted by LED lighting [
35 ].

Although scientific evidence on the biological impacts of ALAN is still patchy, many biologists and physicians have come to take a precautionary stance and promote the protection or restoration of natural darkness or reduced light levels. In that and in their reservations regarding blue-rich lighting, they share views and goals with astronomers, as well as with actors that engage critically with the illumination of the night from other viewpoints, such as culture or aesthetics [ 3 ,
36 ]. In the latter respect,
it is frequently highlighted that we are losing the experience of natural darkness and the visibility of the stars and planets, which has been a key to human civilization [ 37 ].
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Light pollution experts also actively recommend, develop and test counter-measures. They develop models to assess the scope and effects of the problem, as well as the viability of solutions [
3 ,
27 ,
32 ,
38 ]
. They criticize the fact that existing lighting technology, lighting standards and regulations are not sufficient and that they should be updated to acknowledge issues of light pollution [
39 ]. Advocacy organizations such as the International Dark-Sky Association (IDA), but also researchers in the ALAN community, address the wide-spread ignorance of the issue and actively engage in raising awareness for light pollution (e.g., ida.org, cost-lonne.eu, stars4all.eu). Finally, light pollution experts are actively involved in shaping lighting technology (e.g., shielded luminaires, PC amber LEDs) and the governance of lighting via tools that range from technical recommendations (e.g., avoidance of light above the horizontal and blue-rich lighting) to education (e.g., in observatories) and mandatory legislation [
40 –
42 ].

Table 2.

Overview of our empirically grounded assumptions regarding group-specific views.

Assumptions Light Pollution Experts Lighting Professionals Basic assumptions
What are the
group-specific interests?
•
Reduce artificial light at night, stop loss
of the night.
•
Acknowledge and tackle the problem in
projects, guide-lines, rules
and regulations.
•
Sell lighting expertise in design and
building projects.
•
Promote good, visually comfortable,
aesthetically appealing light
and darkness.

Problem perception
What is light pollution?
•
All artificial light at night is a form
of pollution.
•
It depends on the situation, whether
light is pollution.
•
Given the many positive effects of
lighting, the term ‘pollution’
is inappropriate.

Why is it a problem?
•
ALAN can have negative effects on flora,
fauna, humans and ecosystems.
•
Experience of natural darkness and the
visibility of night-time skies are lost.
•
Visual discomfort (e.g., due to glare)
and light trespass.
•
Negative effects on people’s sleep.
•
Unnecessary energy consumption
and cost.

Governance challenge
What are the obstacles?
•
Lack of awareness and knowledge
amongst decision-makers, lighting
professionals and light users.
•
Worldwide increase in blue-rich white
LED lighting which intensifies
the problem.
•
Lighting professionals have
solutions, but they are not invited.
•
Adequate technology and best
practices are available, but need to
be disseminated.

Possible solutions
Who is responsible?
•
Actors in the lighting field, regulators
and light users.
•
Actors in the lighting field.

What should be done?
•
Reduce artificial light at night, avoid
blue-rich light.
•
Develop policies for mitigating light
pollution, including hard regulations.
•
Develop better technology that reflects
the state of knowledge regarding the
negative effects of lighting.
•
Encourage sustainable instead of
cheap solutions.
•
Apply existing knowledge
and recommendations.
•
Plan and design according to the
state of the art in lighting.
•
Use smart technology and apply
adaptive lighting.
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Based on these discourses and developments, we assumed the following:

1. Regarding the definition of light pollution, we expect that light pollution experts contend that all artificial light at night is pollution
, because even small amounts of ALAN are an alteration of natural darkness and may affect living beings and the possibility to observe the night sky. In terms of the problem’s dimensions, we assume that they highlight potential non-visual effects of light on flora, fauna, humans and ecosystems, as well as the cultural loss of natural darkness and star-filled skies.

2. Regarding the governance challenge, we expect that light pollution experts call for more political commitment and highlight the need to raise awareness for light pollution, to provide more guidance and information to decision makers.

3. In terms of the problem’s solutions, there seems to be a widely-shared consensus in the light pollution community that
systemic change
is necessary. We therefore assume that light pollution
experts recommend more sustainable technology, better education and information, as well as better technical guidance, lighting standards and stricter regulations.

3.2. Lighting Professionals and the Art of Planning, Designing and Manufacturing Light Lighting professionals’ perspectives are less obvious, as they often do not refer to light pollution when they write about potential negative side-effects of lighting. As a lighting designer remarked in response to our survey invitation, “the term ‘light pollution’ is an evocative phrase for many lighting designers, including me. Our stance is that light is a pure and natural phenomenon, and the ‘pollution’ angle comes from the misuse of light, or light in the wrong place. We feel that the terms ‘obtrusive light’ and/or ‘light trespass’ are more fitting.” In a commentary published in Nature, lighting designer Zielinska-Dabkowska outlines the potentially negative health effects of lighting without mentioning the term “light pollution” even once [
43 ].

Looking at lighting practices and projects, energy and cost efficiency constitute long-standing benchmarks that can be linked to light reduction. Accordingly, the British Institution of Lighting Professionals (ILP) argues in its Guidance Notes for the Reduction of Obtrusive Light: “Do not ‘over’ light. This is a major cause of obtrusive light and is a waste of energy. There are published standards for most lighting tasks, adherence to which will help minimize upward reflected light.” [ 44 ] (p. 1111).

This recommendation also reflects the basic stance that ‘good’ lighting means providing appropriate lighting for a given time, place and task. Light engineering and illuminating societies develop technical standards to provide orientation towards achieving this complex goal (ies.org, theilp.org.uk and licht.de). Lighting design associations and expert networks provide information, education and exchange platforms that enable their members to plan and design light in situation-specific ways and according to their clients’ needs (e.g., iald.org, pld-c.com, luciassociation.org). Light manufacturers also subscribe to this goal which allows them to further develop and diversify their product lines, for instance with a focus on heath or enhanced work performance [
45 ,
46 ].

Knowing how to accomplish ‘good’ lighting is considered a characteristic and distinctive skill of lighting professionals, which qualifies them more than electricians, civil engineers, architects or private home owners to illuminate the world at night. However, in reality, such explicit lighting expertise is often ignored or only invited in the final stages of building or design projects. Therefore, light planners, specifiers and lighting designers often describe light pollution as a problem of missed opportunities:

Short-sighted cost-benefit calculations, lack of expertise and time pressure lead to suboptimal solutions that cause nuisances and unwanted side effects.

Professional experience and knowhow appear to be particularly relevant in light of two major developments: For one, climate change policies affect lighting practices in the form of economic incentives, but also product bans like the out-phasing of the incandescent light bulb [ 25 ]. For another,
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) constitute a disruptive technological innovation [ 47 ]. LED technology
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time”, since LEDs are highly directional and can be digitally controlled and adapted in brightness and color temperature. They thus open new business opportunities, which also relate to issues of light pollution. For instance, light manufacturers work on optical systems that reduce glare, conduct their own research on the non-visual effects of blue-rich LED light and offer new products, including PC amber LEDs, to meet the demands of dark-sky friendly lighting schemes.

Finally, new conceptual approaches to lighting are relevant to light pollution debates. First, LED lighting is promoted with visions of adaptive “smart” lighting that responds to lighting needs, thereby reducing excess light [
47 ,
48 ]. The notion of “human-centric lighting” highlights the relationship between light and well-being, thereby widening the thus-far dominant focus on more functional aspects like visibility and safety [
49 ]. In this concept, lighting professionals show a preference for adaptable white light sources with a continuous spectrum, which provide better color rendering than the widely-used sodium vapor street lamps, and are thus assumed to enhance visual comfort in outdoor spaces. Last but not least, lighting designers also highlight the value of darkness, but more for aesthetic than for environmental reasons, which are less prominently voiced in lighting projects [ 13 ]
(pp. 182–187).

Based on these observations, we assumed the following:

1. Regarding the problem’s definition, we expect lighting professionals to argue that it depends
on the situation
whether light is pollution, or even to
reject the notion that light can be pollution
altogether. In terms of the problem’s dimensions, they will probably be more concerned with reducing energy consumption and improving humans’ visual comfort (full light spectrum, no glare) and well-being than with protecting natural darkness and star-filled skies or reducing potential negative effects on flora and fauna.

2. With regard to the governance challenge, we expect that lighting professionals take responsibility and make the mitigation of light pollution their own task, as it calls for professional skills and constitutes a potential business case. It seems likely that they will argue that light pollution would not be a problem if lighting were properly planned and designed by experts.

3. Regarding the problem’s solutions, we accordingly assume that lighting professionals blame procedural and project-related shortcomings like the lack of lighting expertise in building projects and call for an earlier and more consistent involvement of professionals. We further expect them to rely on the self-regulatory functions of their professional institutions and the state of the art in their professional domain (existing guidelines, best practices, innovative technological solutions and products) rather than calling for ‘external’ intervention via stricter rules and more regulation.

4. Findings: Where Experts (Dis)agree
Overall, our results show that light pollution experts generally express stronger opinions on the issue than lighting professionals. We further see that views are more consensual regarding understandings of the problem and possible solutions than they are regarding the question of why it is difficult to tackle light pollution, that is, the governance challenge. To better understand the contexts in which the survey respondents form their opinions, we asked them to specify how their professional or voluntary light-related work is affected by current trends (Figure S2 and Table S2).

The results show that the two groups perform their activities under the impression of relatively similar dynamics, especially the introduction of LED lighting in outdoor spaces, irrespective of their geographical background.

4.1. What is Light Pollution?
To test our assumptions regarding problem perceptions, we asked the respondents to express their opinions about the notion of light pollution. Not surprisingly, light pollution experts were more critical of ALAN than lighting professionals (Figure
1 ): 47% of them consider
all outdoor lighting as
pollution
, while 53% think that
it depends on the situation
. Conversely, given the frequently encountered
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scepticism towards the term, we were surprised that 28% of the lighting professionals in our sample even subscribed to the absolute view that “all outdoor lighting after dark is a form of pollution.” Of the respondents, 66% think it depends on the situation, and 3% of lighting professionals answered that “outdoor lighting is never pollution”.

Figure 1.

Problem definition: “What is your personal opinion regarding light pollution?” Answers in percentage per group and (absolute numbers).

In a follow-up question, we then asked those who had answered “it depends” to specify problematic situations (multiple choice). Figure
2 shows that light pollution experts find more
situations problematic: 66% of them ticked nine out of eleven possible answers, while only 23% of the lighting professionals agreed with nine answer options. The majority of lighting professionals agree with light pollution experts, albeit to a lesser extent, that light is pollution when it enters areas where
it is unwanted
(light trespass), is
not used
,
obscures the visibility of the stars
and
produces glare
.

Discrepancies between the groups vary. They are smallest when light is not automatically considered pollution, such as
colorful lighting
or
moving and blinking lights
. Opinions differ most
when it comes to the illumination of specific spaces like natural areas
or
close to bodies of water
or
observatories
(inter-group differences of more than 45 percentage points) and lighting-technological aspects like
blue-rich lighting, color temperature and glare
(inter-group differences between 37 and 44
percentage points).

The discrepancy allows two interpretations: Firstly, the comparatively low recognition of problematic spaces among lighting professionals might be a sign of their unawareness or indifference with regard to effects of ALAN on water organisms, flora and fauna in general, or astronomical observations. However, as we will see below, answers to follow-up questions do not support this interpretation. Secondly, we might conclude that light pollution experts lean towards more definite essentialist understandings of the problem, whereas lighting professionals have more relativist views. 58 Sustainability
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Figure 2.

Problem dimensions: “In which situations do you consider lighting as pollution?” Percentage of positive answers by group (multiple choice, filter question following the definition “it depends”, n = 91, sorted by lighting professionals’ feedback).

4.2. Why is it a Problem?
The light pollution experts’ more acute perception of the problem is also reflected in their evaluation of its different dimensions (Figure
3 ). When asked why light pollution should be reduced,
82% of the respondents in this group rated
all six
suggested arguments as “important” or “very
important”, in contrast to 58% of lighting professionals.

Figure 3.

Problem dimension: “In your opinion, why should light pollution be reduced? Please indicate how important you find the following...” Percentage of respondents in each group who answered 4 or 5 on a scale from 1-
not at all important
to 5-
very important
. The option “I doubt this is an issue” (
−
1) was
not chosen (sorted by lighting professionals’ feedback). See Table S3 for more detail.

Over 90% of all respondents agreed that the
negative effects of lighting on animals and ecosystems
are important or very important reasons to tackle the problem. The least supported argument in both groups—
people are endangered due to glare/distraction
—was still considered important by 82% of the
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light pollution experts and 58% of the lighting professionals. This last place on the list may reflect the expert debate on whether glare should be discussed as a form of light pollution. Interestingly, this valuation stands in contrast to the fairly high ratings for glare as a form of light pollution (Figure 3 ).

When exploring inter-group discrepancies, we see that the inter-group differences are greatest and that the impact of occupation is thereby also statistically significant in regressions with various explaining variables (see footnote 3) for the three last-ranking arguments that regard negative effects on
people’s sleep
(
p
< 0.05),
people’s incapacity to experience natural darkness and star-filled skies (
p
< 0.01)
and
dangers due to glare/distraction
(
p
< 0.05).

4.3. What is the Governance Challenge?
The governance challenge was operationalized in terms of potential obstacles to light pollution mitigation. Again, light pollution experts express stronger opinions in almost all points (Figure 4 ).

The only possible obstacle that does not fit this pattern concerns the definition of light pollution
. While
50% of the lighting professionals think that the lack of a clear-cut definition is an important impediment, this view is only shared by 32% of the light pollution experts, which corresponds with their more definite understanding of the problem as outlined above.

Figure 4.

Obstacles to light pollution mitigation: “Based on your experience, how relevant are the following potential obstacles to avoiding/reducing light pollution?” Percentage of respondents in each group who answered 4 or 5 on a scale from 1-
not at all important
to 5-
very important
(sorted by lighting
professionals’ ranking). See Table S4 for more detail.

Focusing on the ranking of the listed items, the top three obstacles for the lighting professionals are first, the
general lack of awareness that lighting can have negative effects (68%), second,
the low priority of
the issue in lighting projects
(61%), and third,
the installation of LEDs without consideration of side-effects (57%). These potential obstacles are also considered as most important
by light pollution experts, but
they rank the LED problem second (94%) and the low priority of light pollution in lighting projects third (85%). In both groups, the complex issue of
public safety concerns
ranks fourth, albeit very close to
the third-most important item.

Looking more closely at the discrepancies between the groups, we find an interesting pattern. The inter-group differences are greatest and statistically significant ( p
< 0.001) in regressions asking for
the impact of occupation and for the three items that concern lighting practices (introduction of LED lighting, lighting standards, lack of adequate lighting technology). Light pollution experts consider these potential obstacles as considerably greater than lighting professionals (34 percentage points and 60 Sustainability
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more). Scepticism or even frustration regarding current lighting practices also dominate about half of the open statements to this question: “Mindless installation of harsh, eye-gouging LEDs has become an epidemic worldwide and it just keeps getting worse and worse,” writes one light pollution expert.

Another criticizes “manufacturers and National agencies ignoring/minimizing light pollution as side effect . . . ”
Light pollution experts’ negative or sceptical views on current lighting practices could be interpreted as a result of their vigilant observation of, but limited access to, the lighting field.

It also supports our assumption that lighting professionals are less critical of their field as they think they could solve the problem if they were invited to give their expertise. Accordingly, one lighting professional proposes to “promote good lighting design” as a way of light pollution mitigation. Another complains that “specification and installation decisions are made by parties without appropriate training/expertise.”
The gap between the groups is smaller regarding what can be summarized as light user-related
obstacles (lack of awareness regarding the negative effects of lighting, low priority of the issue in lighting projects, and concerns about public safety), which are rated amongst the most important impediments to light pollution mitigation. While differences between the groups still range between 24–29 percentage points when considering only the high values (answers 4 and 5), they are even smaller when looking at
all
responses (entire scale from 1 to 5): the difference between the group-specific mean values is below 0.9 with relatively high average scores between 3.6 and 4.8 (see Table S4).

The user-related obstacles’ importance is also reflected in the open responses (n = 36 for both groups), where almost half of the statements address unawareness, ignorance or misconceptions among light users, including municipalities. “There is a general ignorance and apathy on the issue”, remarks a light pollution expert and adds that “slowly but surely people are waking up.” A lighting professional criticizes “the poor knowledge and the deficient light culture of politics and city administrations.”

4.4. Who is Responsible for Tackling the Issue?
Since environmental issues like light pollution raise questions of accountability, we asked the survey participants to attribute responsibility to a list of stakeholders. Again, the responses show that light pollution experts attribute generally more responsibility to each listed group than lighting professionals, but the inter-group differences are smaller than the potential obstacles (Figure 5 ).

In particular, there is broad agreement that lighting designers/planners, politicians and public administration are responsible, followed by lighting manufacturers. The inter-group comparison shows that the lighting professionals in our sample are, as expected, willing to take on responsibility, which is also assigned to them by light pollution experts. The lighting professionals’ willingness to tackle the problem is underlined by the responses of the nine respondents who sell lighting products as their main occupation: They all find that lighting manufacturers are responsible. Furthermore, lighting professionals hold the actors in their field more responsible than politicians and public administrations, whereas light pollution experts see them as being roughly equally responsible. 61 Sustainability
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Figure 5.

Responsibility: “In your opinion, to which degree are the following actor groups responsible for avoiding or reducing light pollution?” Percentages of respondents in both groups who answered 4 or 5 on a scale from 1-
not at all responsible
to 5-
very much responsible
(sorted by lighting professionals’
feedback). See Table S5 for more detail.

The trust in professional expertise is also reflected in the responses regarding the responsibility of individual consumers. Only 52% of the lighting professionals in our sample consider them highly responsible (values 4 or 5), whereas 27% think that end users of light are not
responsible (values
1 or 2). Light pollution experts, too, rank individual consumers least responsible, but hold them considerably more accountable: Only 7% find individual consumers have no responsibility, while 75% think they do. The discrepancy might result from lighting professionals’ expert attitudes towards their clients as expressed in some open statements (e.g., “Clients in general ask for more”), whereas light pollution experts might identify themselves as individual consumers who take action against light pollution. This interpretation corresponds with a sense of self-responsibility that was expressed in several open survey statements (Question: "In your light-related activity, do you actively take precautions/action to avoid or reduce light pollution?"). Here, light pollution experts describe how they chose specific technology to reduce light pollution in their immediate surroundings or participate in public campaigns and education to raise awareness for the issue.

Finally, that most light pollution experts (75% and more) rank all items listed in the question highly likely reflects their interest in mobilizing against light pollution and addressing the issue broadly.

This is also expressed in open statements regarding responsibilities: “We are all responsible”, argues one light pollution expert. Others attribute responsibility to “civil society/local communities (people that live in areas which suffer from too less or too much light)” or to “people in general”, as “they are the final users of the lighting systems and have to have a capital role in this issue . . . ” Despite differences in degree, we see that over 70% of the survey respondents in both groups can agree that the main responsibility for tackling light pollution lies with decision makers and institutional actors in the lighting field and in politics. That they hold individual consumers less responsible can be interpreted as a sign of their system understanding of the challenge and sense of realism. After all, most respondents also indicated that the general lack of awareness among light users is a major obstacle to light pollution mitigation, making them a difficult stakeholder group to start with. 62 Sustainability
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4.5. What Should be Done?
Regarding possible light pollution mitigation measures, the views of lighting professionals and light pollution experts converge far more than in previous questions, with especially small inter-group differences for high-ranking potential measures. The
promotion of best practice lighting projects,
e.g.,
in municipalities,
is unequivocally strongly recommended, i.e., by 95% of all respondents (Figure 6 ).

Moreover, 89.6% of the lighting professionals and 84.5% of the light pollution experts recommend to use lighting concepts and integrated light planning
to tackle the problem. The great for such strategic policy instruments is remarkable as they are still in a phase of development and not yet very well established in urban and regional light planning practice [
50 ,
51 ]. This might explain why light pollution experts
find education measures and awareness-raising even more desirable (mean values between 3.6 and 4.7, see Table S6).

Figure 6.

Recommendations: “To which extent would you recommend the following measures to avoid/reduce light pollution?” Percentage of respondents in each group who answered 4 or 5 on a scale from 1-
not at all
to 5-
very strongly
(sorted by lighting professionals’ feedback). See Table S6 for more detail.

The impacts of occupational backgrounds (lighting professional or light pollution expert) were only statistically significant for the three least important possible recommendations: Light pollution experts more strongly recommend
allowing people to experience naturally dark nights
(
p
< 0.01). They are
also significantly more in favor of
mandatory regulations and legal frameworks
(
p
< 0.001) and more
strongly recommend
improving voluntary standards for lighting applications and products (
p
< 0.05).

The discrepancy, especially with regard to binding regulations, partly matches our assumption that lighting professionals would rather support the better use of existing expertise and technology. Yet, we also see that more than half of them recommend the creation of regulations and better standards for tackling light pollution. Meanwhile, the share of light pollution experts who recommend better regulatory frameworks is smaller than we expected. This slightly diminished enthusiasm might result from the experience that rules and regulations need to be understood, followed and enforced if they are to make a difference, which has proven problematic in the lighting field [ 16 ] (pp. 151–152).
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Seen overall, it is relevant that the respondents show a high degree of agreement to all
suggested
measures (agreement above 50% in both groups for all items). One open statement (Question: Why do you find specific measures more advisable than others?) explains how the items complement each other: “We need a mix of (1) measures to avoid mistakes (education; binding regulations); (2) retrofitting programmes to fix past mistakes; and (3) more dark sky parks experience to spread the benefits of low light pollution.” Another points out that outdoor lighting has historically been designed and installed with little regard for its potential negative impact: “Overcoming this will take a coordinated approach using awareness raising, education, rules and regulation cross the range of the industry including end users.”

5. Discussion: Differences, but Common Grounds
The findings of our expert survey both confirm and challenge our group-specific expectations (Section
3 ). While it is important to keep in mind that the lighting professionals in our sample are likely particularly sensitive to and reflexive about light pollution issues due to a self-selection bias, the analysis of the survey results nonetheless point towards both shared and conflicting views.

5.1. Problem Perception: Absolute and Situated Definitions across Expert Groups First of all, the results highlight that light pollution experts and lighting professionals can agree on relevant points. This is most evident in the unexpected result that most lighting professionals in our sample accept the concept of light as pollution (Figure 1 ). More than half of all respondents
perceive light pollution as a situation-dependent phenomenon. The four top-ranking critical situations in both groups (Figure
2 ) describe light trespass, unused light, sky glow and glare. Focusing on disagreement, it seems that the most important difference is that light pollution experts define light pollution in more absolute terms, for instance when light shines in natural areas, irrespective of its specific purpose or use. This discrepancy seems important when it comes to possible counter-measures, as an essentialist understanding calls for zoning and thresholds in regulatory approaches, whereas a relativist understanding calls for deliberation and the negotiation of conflicting interests.

Regarding the potential dimensions of the problem (Figure 3 ), we found support for our
assumptions that light pollution experts overwhelmingly consider the lost experience of natural darkness and the night sky as a relevant reason for reducing light pollution, whereas lighting professionals find other aspects such as energy savings more important. Interestingly, they rated aspects related to the human experience of light and darkness least important. This was unexpected in light of professional debates on visual comfort and human-centric lighting.

Given that ecology is rarely an issue in lighting projects, the almost unanimous perception of unwanted side effects on flora and fauna as being highly relevant was surprising. This can be understood as a sign that the lighting field is ready to take into account the increasing scientific evidence on effects of ALAN. Recent publications by lighting designers support this conclusion [ 52 ],
calling for “biologically benign forms of energy-efficient lighting” and transdisciplinary efforts by physicists, engineers, medical experts, biologists, designers, planners, regulators and policymakers to “minimize the negative impacts of artificial lighting at night, indoors and out.” [ 43 ] (p. 274).

We conclude that a shared concern for the unwanted environmental effects of ALAN could constitute common grounds for lighting professionals and light pollution experts. After all, tackling light pollution is also perfectly in line with energy-saving goals as a positive side effect and another selling argument for light pollution mitigation.

5.2. Governance Challenge: Raising Awareness is Key
Regarding challenges and opportunities for tackling light pollution, we see a broad consensus that there is a problematic and general unawareness of the problem (Figure 4 ): More than two-thirds
of the respondents agree that light pollution mitigation is hampered by the fact that people are not aware that light can have negative effects. This result fully confirms our expectations regarding light 64 Sustainability
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pollution experts. For lighting professionals, it indirectly supports our assumption that they consider themselves unsolicited experts, especially as they point toward the low priority of light pollution in lighting projects as the second most important obstacle. In other words, lighting professionals seem convinced that the problem could be managed if they were only asked more often to offer their expertise. Yet, this implies that clients are aware of the problem in the first place.

Moreover, both groups express their concern that the introduction of LED lighting endangers light pollution mitigation. As expected, these responses reflect the light pollution experts’ concern that the worldwide increase in blue-rich LED lighting will intensify the problem, and lighting professionals’ dissatisfaction with bad or badly installed LED technology. It is important to note, however, that light pollution experts significantly more often see LED lighting as an important impediment to light pollution mitigation. The same applies to the lighting industry and existing lighting standards, which light pollution experts consider much more problematic than lighting professionals.

Taken together, the group-specific responses to our question regarding potential obstacles differ more than those regarding the problem and possible solutions. We interpret this as a result of different practical experiences: While lighting professionals are perfectly familiar with, and therefore criticize, imperfect project realities, light pollution experts observe the lighting field from their concerned outsider perspectives as astronomers, environmentalists, researchers or citizens and criticize the entire system.

5.3. Possible Solutions: Who will Tackle the Problem of Light Pollution and How? Finally, expert opinions on possible solutions have great practical relevance. Here, our assumptions regarding responsibility attribution were only partly confirmed. Both groups hold individual consumers least responsible and lighting designers and planners most responsible, followed by politicians and public administrations (Figure
5 ). As expected, the lighting professionals in our
sample are overwhelmingly ready to take on the challenge. Meanwhile, light pollution experts unexpectedly attributed responsibility to practically anyone, including themselves (“all of us”). Thus, it seems that contrary to many environmental debates where scapegoating prevents action [ 53 ], the
majority of the survey respondents appeared to be ready to take action. This is also reflected in their answers to another open question, where we asked whether they “actively take precautions/action to avoid or reduce light pollution”: The numerous responses showed a broad range of activities, including the private use of adaptive lighting systems, the promotion of darkness in municipal lighting schemes and public dark-sky initiatives [
16 ] (pp. 199–202).

The respondents’ recommendations on how to tackle the problem are surprisingly consensual across the two groups (Figure
6 ). The promotion of best practice in lighting projects is highly recommend by 95% of the survey participants. They also broadly agree that integrated light planning is a promising measure. This common ground seems to be particularly relevant, as these instruments are not yet widely established, but municipalities seem increasingly open to rethinking their lighting schemes in response to the profound technological transition, climate change policies and an increasing public concern for light pollution [
50 ]. Moreover, lighting professionals have begun to explicitly consider light pollution concerns when they develop lighting schemes and guidelines [ 54 ,
55 ]. These
planning-oriented recommendations send a clear message to policy makers, as they can inform best practice, make the philosophy of demonstration projects more tangible and offer guidance to decision makers and light planners.

In line with the widely-shared view that lacking awareness of light as pollution is a key obstacle to tackling the problem, education of both lighting experts and users is a highly consensual recommendation. In comparison, regulatory measures like binding law were less consensual. We thus conclude that the largest common grounds among the two groups exist regarding soft measures, such as setting good examples and raising awareness. From a policy perspective, such educational and best-practice measures constitute low-hanging fruit, as they are likely to raise attention and enthusiasm with less controversy and opposition than may be the case with hard regulation. The experts who 65 Sustainability
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participated in our survey seem well-aware of this across the board. However, regarding the question of whether such soft measures will be enough, our survey indicates that opinions differ.

6. Conclusions
This exploratory study focuses on expert views on light pollution to explore common grounds for future debates and political strategies. Our findings show that lighting professionals who provide illumination and light pollution experts, who problematize artificial light at night, do not necessarily live and work in worlds apart. Instead, the lighting designers, planners and manufacturers that participated in our survey are ready to take into account the increasing scientific evidence on negative non-visual effects of artificial light at night on ecosystems in order to provide better lighting as part of their business. They accept the notion of light pollution, especially in situations where lighting does not live up to quality standards of light engineering, planning or design. Finally, they largely agree with astronomers, environmentalists, researchers and dark-sky activists that there is a need for raising awareness for the unwanted side-effects of lighting.

While light pollution is far from being a mainstream topic, these findings suggest that there is a rising awareness for the problem and its potential effects not only in science and society, but also in the lighting field. As an emerging environmental concern, the issue also raises questions that go beyond this study. For instance, the problem and solutions seem to be less controversial than the obstacles that prevent light pollution mitigation. To better understand the governance challenge, it therefore seems advisable to not only study the effects of ALAN, but also the societal and cultural contexts in which it is produced, used and changed [
13 ,
25 ,
47 ]. Disagreement and controversies can thereby offer a salient starting point for understanding the values and fears, path dependencies and future visions associated with light and darkness [
19 ,
39 ,
56 ].

Moreover, the governance challenge of light pollution shows interesting parallels with other environmental issues that are more established and may offer instructive insights, like noise or chemical pollution [
57 ]. One lesson learnt is that patchy knowledge bases and scientific uncertainty constitute a challenge for risk communication [
58 ]. With regard to our results, this raises the sensitive question of how to create public awareness for light pollution without either dramatizing or downplaying its potential effects. Research alone cannot meet this challenge. Instead, it highlights the need for science-policy interfaces as well as inter- and transdisciplinary exchange. A number of initiatives and organizations in both the lighting field and the emerging ALAN research community offer platforms to meet this demand [
16 ] (pp. 224–246). However, although experts of both fields have started to exchange views and knowledge, a joint platform for opening and closing debates is still missing, which can cause uncertainty among light users [
25 ].

The commonalities between two fields of expertise highlighted in this paper thus have practical relevance, as they can facilitate exchange between experts that share an interest in light pollution mitigation despite their diverse, and potentially opposing, professional backgrounds. Fostering this exchange seems pivotal since light pollution mitigation means a transformation of lighting practices and the positive connotation of lighting [
13 ]. It is even more important as the strong support for situation-specific definitions of light pollution in our study suggests that the issue can hardly be solved only in principle, but calls for negotiation at the level of lighting projects and in public discourses. Seen from this perspective, the recommendation to raise awareness and education seems to be a ‘no-brainer’.

Instead, it raises the question about what should be taught to whom and how. In this respect, critical debates on light planning and lighting design that engage local residents and stakeholders from lighting and non-lighting backgrounds on-site in concrete projects seems a promising starting point.

After all, there is no shortage of technological options or visionary concepts like “human centric” or “smart” lighting, but a lack of projects that realize these possibilities in sustainable ways. This is not surprising, as determining what “sustainable” lighting actually is, will very likely stir debate, opposition and controversies over means and goals. It is also quite possible that lighting professionals and light pollution experts who agree in principle will disagree when it comes to concrete decisions. 66 Sustainability
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Therefore, public testing and reality checks of visionary ideas and concepts are essential. They bear potential for improvement, mutual understanding and, most importantly, bring the global discussion on light pollution into a local, practical context, and make it real in its consequences.

Supplementary Materials:

The following are available online at
http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/6/1696/
s1
, Table S1: Variables used in regressions, Figure S1: Regressional analyses, Table S2: Trends, Figure S2: Trends, Table S3: Problem dimension, Table S4: Obstacles, Table S5: Responsibilities, Table S6: Recommendations. An overview of variables is available at
www.ufz.de/light-pollution
.

Author Contributions:

N.S.-R., J.M. and E.D. have conceived and conceptualized the study and questionnaire.

N.S.-R. and M.S. prepared and carried out the survey and analyzed the survey data. N.S.-R. and J.M. wrote the first draft of the paper and all four authors contributed to writing, revising and editing the manuscript.

Funding:

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest:

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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).
69 City of Hayward

4150 Point Eden Way Industrial Development Project

Final Environmental Impact Report

Response to Comments Document

Letter
4 COMMENTER:

Carin High
,
Co
-
Chair
,
Citizens Committee to Complete the Refuge

DATE:

May
24, 2021

Response
4 .1

The commenter
states their understanding of the proposed project in the form of a summary.

The commenter
’
s understanding of the proposed project is an accurate summary of one component of the project as proposed and evaluated in
the Draft EIR
.

However, as described on
P
age 2
-
6 of the
Draft EIR, the proposed also includes two other components. These two other components include a land exchange to relocate the San Francisco Bay Trail and establishing an approximately 32 -
acre
wetland

preserve.

This comment is noted and does not require revisions to the Draft EIR.

Response
4 .
2 The commenter lists the project objectives while stating an opinion that
one of the objectives is the
purpose of the project and two of the objectives
appear to
be intended to

prohibit the selection of
alternatives to the project
, which the commenter opines is

a violat
ion of

CEQA
.

The commenter correctly lists the project objectives. As described on P
age 2
-
13 of the Draft EIR, the
objectives of the proposed projec
t are to:

Develop an industrial building to house U
-
Haul corporate headquarters and warehouse.

L
ocate the building at the western edge of Hayward in proximity to a regional highway and

other industrial, warehousing and logistics uses to avoid land use conf licts.

Create new employment and economic growth opportunities by redeveloping a vacant and

underutilized property.

Establish a wetland preserve adjacent to the San Francisco Bay.

Remove a dilapidated and unsafe structure from a currently underutilized pro perty at the

gateway to the City.

The commenter’s
assertion
that the
primary
objective
of the project is
to develop an industrial
building
to house U
-
Haul corporate headquarters and
a
warehouse

is partially correct.

T
he project
also has the purpose of establishing a wetland preserve, as described in the objectives listed above and on
P
age 2
-
13 of the Draft EIR.

The commenter’s
opinion
that the last two listed objectives are overly specific such that they confine
consid
eration of alternatives
and

render it impossible for any other

alternative location

to
be selected is incorrect.

An alternative to a project does not need to meet every objective of that project. Pursuant to Section 15126.6 of the
State CEQA Guidelines
, “
A
n EIR shall describe a range of
reasonable alternatives to the project, or to the location of the project, which would feasibly attain most of the basic objectives of the project…”

Based on Section 15126.26 of the
State CEQA
Guidelines
, an alternative to t
he proposed project need not meet all objectives listed below, but only most of them, such as the first three listed. Therefore, listing all objectives of the project, including specific objectives, does not violate CEQA or inhibit the City’s alternatives analysis or
selection.

70 Final
Environmental Impact Report

Response to Comments Document

Section 6 of the Draft EIR is the analysis of alternatives to the proposed project. Alternative 2, which is an alternate site alternative, is identified as the environmentally superior alternative on page 6 -
11 of the Draft EIR. As de
scribed on page 6
-
11 of the Draft EIR, Alternative 2 would fail to meet two of the five project objectives.

Despite not meeting all five objectives, the City retains the ability to select and proceed with Alternative 2 instead of the proposed project.

Beca
use the Draft EIR evaluates a reasonable range of alternatives to the project

pursuant to CEQA
Guidelines
, including alternatives that meet most of the basic objectives of the project, additional alternatives analyses are unnecessary. No revisions to the D raft EIR are necessary in response to this
comment.

Response
4 .
3 The commenter states that the Draft EIR identifies Alternative 2 as the environmentally superior alternative, but that Alternative 2 is rejected because it fails to meet two project objective s.

As discussed in Response 4.2, Alternative 2, which is an alternate site alternative, is identified as the environmentally superior alternative on
P
age 6
-
11 of the Draft EIR. As described on
Page
6 -
11 of the
Draft EIR, Alternative 2 would fail to meet tw
o of the five project objectives. Despite not meeting all five objectives, the City retains the ability to select and proceed with Alternative 2 instead of the proposed project. Alternative 2 is not rejected from consideration.

Additionally, Section 15126.
6 of
the
State CEQA Guidelines

only requires that an EIR identify the environmentally superior alternative. CEQA does not require the City to select or implement the environmentally superior alternative.

Because the Draft EIR evaluates a reasonable range o
f alternatives to the project and identifies an
environmentally superior alternative, additional alternatives analyses are unnecessary. No revisions to the Draft EIR are necessary in response to this comment.

Response
4 .
4 The commenter states
an opinion
th
at project operation would generate trash that attracts species that would be a nuisance to salt marsh harvest mouse (SMHM) and salt marsh wandering shrew (SMWS), but that the Draft EIR provides no mitigation for impacts of nuisance species to SMHM or SMWS
.

Typically, the types of trash or waste that attract nuisance species, such as feral cats or Norway rats, consists of food scraps and food packaging. Food waste is generally associated with either residential areas or commercial development with restauran ts, where there are many people
cooking and preparing meals, which in turn generates food waste. The proposed project consists of an industrial building to be used for an office and warehouse. Office and warehouse use would not generate substantial amounts

of food waste or by
-
products. Workers on
-
site could bring meals to
the building and discard food trash in small quantities. However, waste generated by workers would be disposed of in proper trash receptables, such as a dumpster, and the receptables would

be
stored inside the building. Because project dumpsters would be in an enclosed area, they would be largely
inaccessible to feral cats or rats.

P
ets such as domestic cats would

not be expected to

reside
within the industrial building.

Therefore, operatio
n of the proposed project would not

significantly

attract or support populations of nuisance species.

Because the project would not attract nuisance
species, there would be no significant impact of nuisance species on SMHM or SMWS and mitigation is not req
uired.

No revisions to the Draft EIR are necessary in response to this comment.

71 City of Hayward

4150 Point Eden Way Industrial Development Project

Final Environmental Impact Report

Response to Comments Document

Response
4 .
5 The commenter states that no discussion is provided regarding how the impacts of the project on the loss of SMHM and SMWS escape refugia will be mitigated even though the impacts “are
regarded as potentially significant.” The comment letter also discusses sea level rise and the need for SMHM and SMWS escape refugia.

Page 4 ends
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